What grows in the savannah. What is savanna and where is it located?

Savannas are areas in which herbaceous vegetation predominates. Most of the African savanna is located in Africa, between 15° N. w. and 30° S. w. Savannas are located in countries such as: Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Uganda , Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and South Africa.

The African savanna has two seasons: dry (winter) and rainy (summer).

The dry winter season is longer, lasting from October to March in the Southern Hemisphere, and from April to September in the Northern Hemisphere. There is only about 100mm of rainfall throughout the entire season.
The rainy summer season (rainy season) is very different from the dry season and lasts a shorter amount of time. During the rainy season, the savanna receives between 380 and 635 mm of rain per month and the rain can last for hours without stopping.

Savanna is characterized by grasses and small or scattered trees that do not form a closed canopy (as in ), allowing sunlight to reach the ground. The African savanna contains a diverse community of organisms that interact to form a complex food web.

Healthy, balanced ecosystems are made up of many interacting systems called food webs. (lions, hyenas, leopards) feed on herbivores (impalas, warthogs, cattle), which consume producers (grasses, plant matter). Scavengers (hyenas, vultures) and decomposers (bacteria, fungi) destroy the remains of living organisms and make them available to producers. Humans are also part of the savanna biological community and often compete with other organisms for food.

Threats

This ecoregion has been significantly damaged by humans in many ways. For example, local residents use the land for grazing, as a result of which the grass dies and the savanna turns into a barren, deserted area. People use wood for cooking and create problems for the environment. Some also engage in poaching (hunting animals illegally), which leads to the extinction of many species.

To restore the damage caused and preserve the natural environment, some countries have created nature reserves. Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Nature Reserve are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The African savanna is one of the largest wild habitats in the world, covering almost half the continent's area, about 13 million km². If it were not for the efforts made by people to preserve the savanna, a large number of representatives of the flora and fauna of this corner of nature would have already become extinct.

Animals of the African savannah

Most savannah animals have long legs or wings that allow them to migrate long distances. Savannah is an ideal place for birds of prey such as hawks and buzzards. The wide open plain gives them a clear view of their prey, rising currents of hot air allow them to glide over the ground with ease, and sparse trees provide opportunities for resting or nesting.

The savanna has a great diversity of fauna: the African savanna is home to more than 40 different species of herbivores. Up to 16 different herbivorous species (those that eat tree leaves and grass) can coexist in one area. This is possible due to the own food preferences of each individual species: they can graze at different heights, at different times of the day or year, etc.

These various herbivores provide food for predators such as lions, jackals and hyenas. Each carnivorous species has its own preferences, allowing them to live in the same territory and not compete for food. All these animals depend on each other, occupy a certain place in the food chain and provide balance in the environment. Savannah animals are in constant search of food and water. Some of them are listed below:

African savannah elephant

The largest land mammal in the world. These animals grow up to 3.96 m at the withers and can weigh up to 10 tons, but most often have a size at the withers of up to 3.2 m and a weight of up to 6 tons. They have a long and very flexible trunk that ends in nostrils. The trunk is used to capture food and water and transfer it to the mouth. On the sides of the mouth there are two long teeth called tusks. Elephants have thick, gray skin that protects them from the deadly bites of predators.

This species of elephant is common in African savannas and grasslands. Elephants are herbivores and eat grasses, fruits, tree leaves, bark, shrubs, etc.

These animals have an important job on the savannas. They eat bushes and trees, and thereby help the grass grow. This allows many herbivorous animals to survive. Today there are about 150,000 elephants in the world and they are endangered because poachers kill them for their ivory.

wild dog

The African wild dog lives in the grasslands, savannas and open woodlands of eastern and southern Africa. The fur of this animal is short and colored in red, brown, black, yellow and white. Each individual has a unique coloring. Their ears are very large and rounded. Dogs have a short muzzle and have powerful jaws.

This species is perfectly suited for chasing. Like greyhounds, they have a slender body and long legs. The bones of the lower front legs are fused together, which prevents them from twisting when running. African wild dogs have large ears that help conduct heat away from the animal's body. The short and wide muzzle has powerful muscles that allow it to grasp and hold prey. The multi-colored coat provides camouflage to the environment.

The African wild dog is a predator and feeds on medium-sized antelopes, gazelles, and other herbivores. They do not compete with hyenas and jackals for food, as they do not eat carrion. Humans are considered their only enemies.

Black Mamba

The black mamba is a highly venomous snake found in the savannas, rocky and open woodlands of Africa. Snakes of this species grow about 4 m in length and can reach speeds of up to 20 km/h. The black mamba is not actually black, but rather brownish-gray, with a light belly and brownish scales on its back. It got its name because of the purple-black color of the inside of its mouth.

Black mambas feed on small mammals and birds such as voles, rats, squirrels, mice, etc. A snake can bite a large animal and release it. She will then chase her prey until she is paralyzed. The mamba bites smaller animals and holds them, waiting for the toxic venom to take effect.

Black mambas are very nervous when a person approaches them and try to avoid it in any way. If this is not possible, the snake shows aggression by raising the front part of its body and opening its mouth wide. They quickly attack and inject their prey with their poison, and then crawl away. Before antivenoms were developed, a mamba bite was 100% fatal. However, to prevent death, the medicine should be administered immediately. They have no natural enemies and the main threat comes from habitat destruction.

Caracal

- a species of mammals from, widely distributed in the savannas of Africa. The body type is similar to a regular cat, but the caracal is larger and has larger ears. Its coat is short and the color varies from brown to reddish-gray, sometimes even becoming dark. His head is shaped like an inverted triangle. The ears are black on the outside and light on the inside, with tufts of black hair at the tips.

They are active at night, mainly hunting small mammals such as rabbits and porcupines, but sometimes large animals such as sheep, young antelope or deer become their victims. They have special skills for catching birds. Their strong legs allow them to jump high enough to actually knock down flying birds with their large paws. The main threat to caracals is people.

bear baboon

Bear baboons live mainly in the African savanna and high mountain grasslands. They never stray far from trees or water sources. This species is the largest in the genus of baboons; males can weigh 30-40 kg. They are very hairy animals with olive-gray fur.

Bear baboons do not live in trees; they spend most of their time on the ground. They can climb trees when threatened, for food or to rest. These mainly eat fruit from trees, roots and bugs. Baboons unintentionally feed other animals by throwing or leaving food behind for others to pick up.

Egyptian mongoose

The Egyptian mongoose is the largest of all mongooses in Africa. The animals are common in scrubland, rocky regions and small areas of savannah. Adults grow up to 60 cm in length (plus a 33-54 cm tail) and weigh 1.7-4 kg. Egyptian mongooses have long fur that is typically gray with brown dots.

They are primarily carnivores, but will also eat fruit if it is available in their habitat. Their typical diet consists of rodents, fish, birds, reptiles, insects and larvae. Egyptian mongooses also feed on the eggs of various animals. These representatives of the fauna can eat poisonous snakes. They hunt birds of prey and large carnivores of the savannah. Egyptian mongooses benefit the environment by killing animals (such as rats and snakes) that are considered pests to humans.

Grant's zebra

Grant's zebra is a subspecies of Burchell's zebra and is widely distributed in the Serengeti Mara. Its height is about 140 cm and its weight is about 300 kg. This subspecies has rather short legs and a large head. Grant's zebra has black and white stripes all over its body, but its nose and hooves are completely black. Each individual has its own unique color.

The main predators of zebras are hyenas and lions. There are about 300,000 zebras left on the savanna and they are endangered.

a lion

They live in the African savannas south of the Sahara. They eat gazelles, buffalos, zebras and many other small and medium-sized mammals. Lions are the only cats that live in family packs called prides. Each pride includes from 4 to 40 individuals.

The coat color of these animals is ideal for camouflage with the environment. They have sharp, hooked claws that they can retract or extend at will. Lions have sharp teeth that are ideal for biting and chewing meat.

They play an important role for the survival of other animals. When this predator kills its prey and eats it, parts or pieces of the carcass are usually left behind for vultures and hyenas to consume.

Lions are quite interesting and graceful creatures that are interesting to watch, however they are endangered due to overhunting and habitat loss.

Nile crocodile

The Nile crocodile can grow up to five meters in length and is common in freshwater swamps, rivers, lakes and other watery places. These animals have long snouts that can capture fish and turtles. Body color is dark olive. They are considered the most intelligent reptiles on earth.

Crocodiles eat almost anything in the water, including fish, turtles or birds. They even eat buffalo, antelope, big cats, and sometimes people when given the chance.

Nile crocodiles skillfully camouflage themselves, leaving only their eyes and nostrils above the water. They also blend well with the color of the water, so for many animals that come to a pond to quench their thirst, these reptiles pose a mortal danger. This species is not endangered. They are not threatened by other animals except humans.

African savannah plants

This habitat is home to a huge variety of wild plants. Many representatives of the flora have adapted to grow during long periods of drought. Such plants have long roots that are able to reach water deep underground; thick bark that can withstand constant fires; trunks that accumulate moisture for use in winter.

Grasses have adaptations that prevent certain animals from eating them; some are too pungent or bitter for certain species, although more than acceptable for others. The advantage of this adaptation is that each animal species has something to eat. Different species may also consume specific plant parts.

There are many different plant species in the African savanna and below is a list of some of them:

Acacia Senegalese

Senegalese acacia is a small thorny tree from the legume family. It grows up to 6 m in height and has a trunk diameter of about 30 cm. The dried sap of this tree is gum arabic - a hard transparent resin. This resin is widely used in industry, cooking, watercolor painting, cosmetology, medicine, etc.

Many wild animals feed on the leaves and pods of the Senegalese acacia tree. Like other legumes, these trees store nitrogen and then add it to poor soils.

Baobab

Baobab is found in the savannas of Africa and India, mainly near the equator. It can grow up to 25 meters in height and live for several thousand years. During the rainy months, water is stored in the thick trunk, using roots up to 10 m long, and then used by the plant during the dry winter season.

Almost all parts of the tree are widely used by local residents. The baobab bark is used to make cloth and rope, the leaves are used as seasonings and medicines, and the fruit, called “monkey bread,” is eaten plain. Sometimes people live in the huge trunks of these trees, and representatives of the galagidae family (nocturnal primates) live in the crowns of the baobab tree.

Bermuda grass

This plant is also called pigweed palmate. Bermuda grass is widespread in warm climates from 45° N latitude. up to 45° S It gets its name from its introduction from Bermuda. Grass grows in open areas (pastures, open forests and gardens) where frequent disturbances to the ecosystem such as animal grazing, floods and fires occur.

Bermuda grass is a creeping plant that forms a dense mat when it touches the soil. It has a deep root system, and in drought conditions the roots can be located underground at a depth of 120-150 cm. The main part of the root is located at a depth of 60 cm.

Fingerweed is considered a highly invasive and competitive weed. Few herbicides are effective against it. Before the advent of mechanized farming, Bermuda grass was the worst weed for farmers. However, it saved a huge amount of agricultural land from erosion. This plant is very nutritious for cattle and sheep.

elephant grass

Elephant grass grows in the African savanna and reaches a height of 3 m. It is found along lakes and rivers where the soil is rich. Local farmers feed this grass to their animals.

The plant is highly invasive and clogs natural water flows, which must be cleared periodically. Elephant grass grows well in tropical climates and can be killed by a slight frost. The underground parts will remain alive unless the soil freezes.

This herb is used by local people in cooking, agriculture, construction and as an ornamental plant.

Persimmon medlar

Loquat persimmon is widely distributed throughout the African savannah. It prefers wooded areas where there are termite mounds nearby, and is also found along river beds and marshy areas. In heavy soils, termite mounds provide the tree with aerated and moist soil. Termites do not eat living trees of this species.

This plant can reach 24 m in height, however most trees do not grow that tall, reaching a height of 4 to 6 m. The fruits of the tree are popular among many animals and local residents. They can be eaten fresh or canned. The fruits are also dried and ground into flour, and beer is also brewed from them. The leaves, bark and roots of the tree are widely used in traditional medicine.

Mongongo

The mongongo tree prefers hot and dry climates with little rainfall and is common in wooded hills and sand dunes. This plant reaches a length of 15-20 meters. It has many adaptations that allow it to live in arid environments, including a moisture-storing trunk, long roots, and thick bark.

This species is widespread throughout the southern savanna. The nuts of this tree are part of the daily diet of many Africans and are even used to extract oil.

Combretum red-leaved

Combretum red-leaved prefers warm and dry climates and grows near rivers. The tree grows from 7 to 12 m in height and has a dense, expanding crown. The fruit is poisonous and causes severe bouts of hiccups. The tree has straight, long roots because it requires a lot of water to grow.

They feed on its leaves in the spring. Parts of this tree are used in medicine and the wood processing industry. Its good adaptability, fast growth, dense expanding crown, interesting fruit and attractive leaves make it a popular ornamental tree.

Acacia twisted

Acacia is a tree from the legume family. Its homeland is the African savanna Sahel, but the plant can also be found in the Middle East. It is known that the plant can grow in highly alkaline soil, and can withstand dry and hot environmental conditions. In addition, trees that reach two years of age have little frost resistance.

The wood of these trees is used in construction and furniture is made from it. Many wild animals feed on acacia leaves and pods. Parts of the tree are used by local people to make jewelry, weapons and tools, as well as in traditional medicine.

Acacia is important in restoring degraded drylands because the tree's roots fix nitrogen (an essential plant nutrient) in the soil through interaction with symbiotic nodule bacteria.

Acacia sickle-lobed

Acacia crescenta is commonly found in the savannas of equatorial East Africa, particularly the Serengeti Plain.

This acacia can grow about 5 m in height and has sharp thorns up to 8 cm long. The hollow thorns can be home to 4 species of ants, and they often make tiny holes in them. When the wind blows, the thorns thrown by the ants make a whistling sound.

The term savanna refers to a climatic region located in the subequatorial zone, which is characterized by herbaceous vegetation with small patches of shrubs and trees. Also, its climate is clearly divided into two seasons: dry and rainy.

African savannas occupy almost 40% of the continent's total area and are distinguished by an incredible diversity of flora and fauna. In addition, this is one of the most environmentally friendly places on earth.

The combination of such factors makes Africa a very attractive tourist destination, especially for exotic lovers.

Historically, the unique nature of the savannahs has suffered the greatest damage from humans. With the beginning of the colonization of Africa, the merciless extermination of the fauna of this region begins.

African tribes had hunted animals before, but they did it to survive, so the damage was quickly repaired, especially since the Africans did not know firearms.

The arriving Europeans began a massive hunt for animals that were exotic to them, which led to their complete or partial destruction. At the present stage, many African states, with the support of the UN, in order to stop the process of extinction of fauna, have set aside vast areas of savannah and banned hunting of animals there.

And although such measures somewhat slowed down the process of extinction of rare species, they could not completely stop it. The most deplorable situation is with rhinoceroses.

The reason for this is their high cost on the black market. Therefore, neither protected areas nor severe punishments stop poachers in their pursuit of money.

If we consider in more detail the fauna of the African savannah, then first of all we should mention its largest representatives. These are the ones that can grow to very impressive sizes: height up to 4 meters, and weight almost 5 tons.

In addition, the savannas are home to the world's largest birds - ostriches. Speaking of herbivores, we should mention zebras, wildebeests, impalas, etc. Buffaloes live here; it is impossible to predict the behavior of these powerful animals with huge horns and they are one of the most dangerous local residents.

You can also find beautiful long-necked giraffes in the savannas. There are many shrouds and predators among the inhabitants. Here you can also see cheetahs and leopards.

These African “cats” are excellent hunters and meat lovers. Their single serving of meat averages 18 kg.

African animals are highly revered in their homeland. It is no coincidence that they can be seen on the coats of arms of such African states as Congo (lion), Botswana (zebra), Kenya (lion), Ivory Coast (elephant).

The flora of African savannas is no less diverse. This is facilitated by the subequatorial climate of the region, in which it rains for almost 9 months of the year.

Here you can find plants that are best adapted to the dry season, which can last for even a month. The grass cover of the savannah is very dense, so it must provide food for the entire diversity of African herbivores.

The so-called “elephant” grass grows here, which has truly huge leaves (their length reaches 50 cm, and the stem grows up to two meters). You can also find aloe and wild asparagus, and a large number of cereal plants.

The most characteristic representative of savannah vegetation is the baobab, the diameter of which often reaches almost 8 meters. This tree grows on average up to 25 meters in height.

In order not to die during the drought, the thick baobab wood is literally saturated with water during the rainy season. Africans use baobab leaves and shoots as food, and the bark for making various tools.

Also in this region grows the “sausage” tree, so named because of the characteristic shape of the fruits, which grow up to half a meter in length. Its fruits are used for medicinal purposes (rheumatism and syphilis are treated), as well as in rituals associated with the expulsion of evil spirits.

In the African savannah there are many different palm trees, thorny bushes, acacias and mimosas, a favorite delicacy of giraffes. The appearance of savannas depends on the season.

During a period of drought, all vegetation seems to freeze: trees even shed their leaves, grass burns out under the scorching sun. Fires often occur here, and you can often see trees with scorched bark.

But as soon as the long rainy season arrives, African nature comes to life again. Fresh grass grows and numerous plants bloom.

The life of the entire savanna is directly dependent on its weather. With every drought, it loses its brightness, turning into a sea of sultry despondency and dried grass. Moreover, after a few days of rain, nature becomes completely unrecognizable. This article will look at the most common savannah plants in Africa.

Description

Savannas are found in places where the dry period lasts up to 8 months per year. The thick bark of very thick, short trees can sometimes reach 30 millimeters or more. It prevents rapid loss of moisture and also protects plants from fire. With frequent fires, savannah plants are practically not damaged; only the outside of the bark is charred. The above-ground organs of the bushes burn out during fires, and those located near the soil surface form new shoots, thus rising from the ashes. The second feature of trees is their flattened umbrella-shaped or disc-shaped crowns.

Plants also survive drought in another way - they store water. Thus, trees that have learned to do this on their own have an interesting appearance: very thick branches and trunks, as well as fleshy leaves. These organs are reservoirs in which plants save the moisture they need so much in such harsh conditions.

Cereals

When considering cereal plants, it is worth highlighting elephant grass. It got its name due to the fact that elephants love to feast on its shoots. In those places where the rainy season is longer, the height of the grass reaches three meters. During drought, the above-ground part of the shoot dries out and is very often completely destroyed by fires, while the underground part is preserved, giving them new life after the rains.

Acacia savannas

Acacia savannas are also common in Africa. These are mainly whitish, Senegalese, giraffe acacia. Thanks to its crown, which has a flattened shape, the tree began to be called umbrella-shaped. The adhesives contained in the bark are widely used in industry, and the wood is used to create expensive, high-quality furniture.

Baobab

Continuing to talk about savannah plants, it must be said that its calling card is that it reaches a height of 25 meters, has a thick trunk (up to 10 meters in diameter), as well as a spreading huge crown. Not long ago, a giant baobab with a trunk diameter of 44 meters and a height of 189 meters was discovered in Africa. Such savannah plants are long-lived, some reaching 5,000 years old. The baobab blooms for several months, and each flower lives only one night. They are pollinated by bats.

Oil palm

Savannah plants are quite diverse. Among them is this plant. Its lifespan reaches 120 years. It is worth mentioning that the pulp of its fruit contains about 70% of the oil used in soap making. When the inflorescence is cut, the juice is obtained, which is used to make wine.

Features of the animal world

Plants and animals of the savannah are always interconnected. The plant diversity listed above provides food for the majority of herbivores. The main part of them are antelopes:

oryx;
kongoni.

Around the wildebeest you can always see herds of Grant's and Thompson's gazelles and zebras. All herbivores are excellent prey for various predators. Cheetahs, lions, hyenas and leopards maintain the balance at the top of this food chain.

On different continents, savannas differ in their floristic composition, but are united by the similarity of some features: the presence of a main herbaceous layer with an abundance of xerophilous grasses, as well as an upper sparse layer of trees and shrubs that grow singly or in small groups.

Savannah is an unusual world that lives by its own unique rules and laws. Everything about it is amazing: winter here is not called the cold season, but the dry period, when there is a sharp shortage of water, and in summer it can rain non-stop for weeks. Such sudden changes in weather affect nature, subjecting it to their own rules. During such periods, the landscape picture is completely different, and even animals behave differently.

Sometimes here you can see landscapes of amazing beauty, and at other times they become dull and despairing. These contrasts have always attracted people and forced them to return to the unknown world of the savannah in order to again see amazing animals and plants that can only be met in this natural area.

Amazing animals

In conditions of lack of moisture and food, animals need to show great endurance and be able to overcome vast territories in order to get food. Savannah is an ideal place for predators, as the short grass makes it possible to look around and see where prey is hiding. However, there are also interesting representatives of the fauna that feed on plant foods.

The largest animal

It is in the savanna that the largest land animal on Earth lives - the African savannah elephant. Its average weight is 5 tons, but in 1956 the largest representative weighing 11 tons was recorded! The face has huge curved tusks that are formed from the front teeth. Their weight is on average 100 kg. Tusks have always been highly valued by humans, so the elephant population was mercilessly destroyed, and this process has not stopped even now.

Elephants are social animals. It is believed that their herds are the most united in the entire fauna kingdom. They take great care of sick or injured family members, help them eat and support them if their weak relatives find it difficult to stand.

There is an opinion that only elephants from the entire animal world have a burial ritual. Realizing that their brother is dead, they cover him from above with branches and earth. It is surprising that they “bury” in this way not only representatives of their own family, but also unfamiliar elephants from other families, and even people. Similar and other, no less interesting facts about the life and death of these animals are described in detail in the book “Among the Animals of Africa” by the famous zoologist and naturalist writer Bernard Grzimek.

Another trait that is similar to humans is the love of sex. These African inhabitants have sex all year round, although they are only capable of fertilization for a few days during the rainy season. Males show courtship so that the female will be favorable to them. Pregnancy in elephants is the longest on earth and lasts almost 2 years - 22 months. Elephants sense the approach of labor and can speed it up by eating a special type of grass that causes contractions.

Cubs are born blind, so they funnyly hold on to their mother's tail so as not to get lost.

Creeping fear

The black mamba is colored brownish-gray, which makes you wonder about its name. In fact, the word “black” did not arise by chance: this color can be seen on the inner surface of the mouth when the snake rushes at a person to bite him. This amazing representative of reptiles reaches impressive sizes, growing up to 4 meters, and it can move at a speed exceeding the running speed of many people - 20 km/h.

There are not many snakes in the world with such strong poison: after a bite, a black mamba crawls some distance and waits for the poison to paralyze the victim. Previously, after being bitten by this snake, people could not escape and died in agony, but now a special antidote has been developed that can prevent death. The only difficulty is that the serum must be administered within the first minutes after the bite, otherwise it will not save the bitten person.

The hunting skills of these snakes are evident from birth: already half an hour after the babies hatch from the eggs, they are able to attack the prey and inject deadly poison into it.

Unlike other mamba species, this species does not live in trees. However, she found a less exotic home for herself in the form of empty termite mounds.

Master of the Savannah

The first picture that comes to mind when thinking about the savannah is the graceful king of animals - a lion, resting after a hunt. This predator is quite lazy: it will never make an extra movement if it is not already hungry.

During the mating season, the female and male leave the pride and indulge in lovemaking for a week. During this entire period they do not hunt and starve, losing a lot of weight. At the same time, their copulation occurs every 15–20 minutes. Sometimes the number of matings reaches 100 times a day. After the love period ends, lions regain their weight for a long time.

These cats sleep a surprising amount: 20 hours a day, just like domestic cats. In a good mood, they can purr and bask in the sun, but when the lion gets angry, he lets out a roar that can be heard for 10 km in the area. Only with the help of a roar can he scare away animals that pose a danger to females or cubs.

Most often, lions hunt at night. This is caused by very acute night vision, which is almost as good as daylight vision. Since most prey do not have universal vision, the chances of success in a lion's night hunt are greatly increased.

Highest

Savannah has become home to many record holders. These include giraffes - the tallest animals on the planet. Their height ranges from 4.6 to 6 meters, most of which is at the neck.

Female giraffes often set up kindergartens, in which several adults look after the babies, while the rest go for food at this time. After the first ones have eaten, they replace the hungry “nannies”.

Giraffes sleep only 60 minutes a day, sometimes they can do this while standing. Despite such a short duration of sleep, the spotted inhabitants of the savannah never yawn: they are the only animals that cannot do this.

Proud bird

The ostrich is not able to fly due to its impressive weight, but it runs so fast that it is slightly inferior to the flight of some birds. At a speed of 70 km/h, he shows amazing mobility: if desired, he can suddenly change the direction of running, without slowing down or slowing down at all.

It is this species that holds the record for egg size: a one and a half kilogram ostrich egg could easily fit 2.5 dozen chicken eggs. The male builds the nest, and all the females he has fertilized lay eggs there. During the day they sit on the nest, and at night the caring dad takes over the baton and warms the eggs with his body.

When the chicks are in danger, ostriches can be cunning and show amazing acting skills, portraying a wounded and weak creature, leading the predator away from the babies. At this time, children quickly run to one of the adults and hide their heads under a large wing. Then the ostrich leaves the amazed predator and returns to his herd.

Quirky set

The Cape aardvark is puzzling with its appearance: it feels like the body parts of different animals were combined in it. Its body resembles an anteater, its long ears resemble a rabbit, its snout is borrowed from piglets, and its tail comes from a kangaroo.

This amazing animal has such an original shape of its nose in order to eat termites, which it hunts at night. He has an excellent sense of smell, thanks to which the aardvark accurately finds termite mounds and devastates them. During the night he can travel about 50 km in search of tasty insects. Termites are not scary for the aardvark, since its skin is so thick that insects are not able to bite through it. They stick to the sticky tongue and go straight to the stomach.

The body size of the aardvark is quite impressive: it can grow up to 2.3 m. If it is driven by a natural enemy, it shows enormous strength with which it can slash the enemy with its claws, fights with its hind legs and very quickly tumbles forward.

Amazing plants

The main characteristic of savannas is long dry months followed by periods of rain. It is this parameter that determines the life of plants in this strip. Most of them are perfectly adapted to frequent fires and can recover in a short time.

Millennial Elders

One of the main symbols of the savanna are amazing trees - baobabs. Establishing the age of the oldest specimens is difficult because these trees do not have annual rings, so it is not possible to establish their age using the standard method. According to general estimates by scientists, baobabs can live about a thousand years, but radiocarbon dating gives different figures - 4500 years. During their lifetime, they manage to grow a huge spreading crown. In the winter they shed their leaves, but not from the cold, but from drought.

The baobab blossom is an amazing sight. The process continues for several months, but each flower lives only one night, so it will not be possible to see a blooming baobab during the day. Since most insects sleep at night, these flowers are pollinated not by them, but by bats that live here.

The baobab has another amazing property that is rarely found among trees: after cutting down the main trunk, the baobab is able to take new roots and take root again. Often, trees that have been knocked down by a storm survive in this way and remain in a lying position forever.

Bleeding Dragons

Previously, the natives considered dragon trees to be enchanted monsters. The reason for this was the amazing property of dracaena: when its bark was scratched or cut with a knife, red resinous juice began to ooze, reminiscent of blood. The name “dracaena” itself translates as “female dragon”.

Previously, the resinous liquid was used for embalming, but now this juice is used on an industrial scale for the preparation of the production of red pigments, paints and varnishes. Dracaena has also found application in medicine and cosmetology: it is used as a component for the treatment of gastric diseases and skin problems.

The dragon tree grows very slowly, but over the decades some representatives reach enormous sizes. The amazing “umbrella” shape of the crown is formed only after flowering, and before that the dracaena grows with a single trunk. The foliage is very densely located in the crown, so at the foot of the dracaenas, people and animals tired of the heat often find rest in complete shade. From its natural habitat, the plant has spread throughout the world as a houseplant because it is very low maintenance but looks attractive and exotic.

Savannah is filled primarily with pampas grasses. But among them there are absolutely amazing representatives. This includes elephant grass. This plant can reach a height of 3 meters, creating barriers for large animals, and for small animals it serves as a reliable shelter and home.

Elephant grass grows near shallow bodies of water. When they dry out, it can die en masse from lack of moisture, blocking the flow of streams or small rivers. It is also afraid of cool weather, so the ground part dies off immediately with the first cold snap. The root system of this cereal penetrates very far into the soil, sending roots to a depth of 4.5 meters, where it draws water. After droughts, with the arrival of the first rains, it quickly grows again and serves as food for many animals: zebras, antelopes, giraffes and other herbivores.

People do not ignore it either, using elephant grass to prepare some dishes, using it in construction and growing it as an ornamental plant.

The savannas of the world keep many secrets. A traveler who decides to visit these lands will find many amazing discoveries that will allow him to understand the romance of safari and appreciate this harsh but attractive world.

Definition of savanna, characteristics of savanna, flora and fauna of savanna

Information on the definition of savanna, characteristics of savanna, flora and fauna of savanna

General characteristics of savannas

Soils and vegetation cover

Basic processes of soil formation

Main soil types

Savannah plant communities

Wildlife of the savannah

Animals

insect

Savannah- vast spaces in the subequatorial belt, covered with herbaceous vegetation with sparsely scattered trees and shrubs. Typical of a subequatorial climate with a sharp division of the year into dry and rainy seasons.

Savannah(otherwise campos or llanos) are steppe-like places characteristic of more elevated tropical countries with a dry continental climate. Unlike true steppes (as well as North American prairies), savannas, in addition to grasses, also contain shrubs and trees, sometimes growing as a whole forest, as, for example, in the so-called “campos cerrados” of Brazil. The herbaceous vegetation of savannas consists mainly of tall (up to ⅓-1 meter) dry and tough-skinned grasses, usually growing in turf; mixed with the cereals are turfs of other perennial grasses and subshrubs, and in damp places flooded in the spring, also various representatives of the sedge family. Shrubs grow in savannas, sometimes in large thickets, occupying an area of many square meters. Savannah trees are usually short-growing; the tallest of them are no taller than our fruit trees, which they are very similar to with their crooked stems and branches. Trees and shrubs are sometimes entwined with vines and overgrown with epiphytes. There are few bulbous, tuberous and fleshy plants in savannas, especially in South America. Lichens, mosses and algae are found extremely rarely in savannas, only on stones and trees.

General characteristics of savannas

The general appearance of savannas is different, which depends, on the one hand, on the height of the vegetation cover, and on the other hand, on the relative amount of grasses, other perennial grasses, subshrubs, shrubs and trees; for example, the Brazilian savanas (“campos cerrados”) represent actually light, sparse forests, where you can freely walk and drive in any direction; the soil in such forests is covered with herbaceous (and semi-shrub) plant cover ½ and even 1 meter high. In savannas of other countries, trees do not grow at all or are extremely rare and are very stunted. The grass cover is also sometimes very low, even pressed to the ground. A special form of savannah is made up of the so-called llanos of Venezuela, where trees are either completely absent or found in limited numbers, with the exception of damp places where palm trees (Mauritia flexuosa, Corypha inermis) and other plants form entire forests (however, these forests do not belong to savannas); in the llanos there are sometimes single specimens of Rhopala (trees from the family Proteaceae) and other trees; sometimes the grains in them form a cover as tall as a person; Between the cereals grow Compositae, legumes, Lamiaceae, etc. During the rainy season, many llanos are flooded by floods of the Orinoco River.

Savannah vegetation is generally adapted to a dry continental climate and to periodic droughts, which occur in many savannas for months at a time. Cereals and other herbs rarely form creeping shoots, but usually grow in tussocks. The leaves of cereals are narrow, dry, hard, hairy or covered with a waxy coating. In cereals and sedges, young leaves remain rolled into a tube. Tree leaves are small, hairy, shiny (“varnished”) or covered with a waxy coating. The vegetation of savannas generally has a pronounced xerophytic character. Many species contain large amounts of essential oils, especially species from the Verbenaceae, Lamiaceae and Myrtle families of South America. The growth of some perennial herbs, semi-shrubs (and shrubs) is especially peculiar, namely in that the main part of them, located in the ground (probably the stem and roots), grows strongly into an irregular tuberous woody body, from which then numerous, mostly unbranched or weakly branched, offspring. During the dry season, savannah vegetation freezes; savannas turn yellow, and dried out plants are often exposed to fires, due to which the tree bark is usually scorched. With the onset of rains, the savannas come to life, becoming covered with fresh greenery and speckled with numerous different flowers.

Savannas are characteristic of South America itself, but in other countries one can point out many places that are very similar in the nature of their vegetation to savannas. Such, for example, are the so-called Campine in the Congo (in Africa); in South Africa, some places are covered with vegetation consisting mainly of grasses (Danthonia, Panicum, Eragrostis), other perennial grasses, shrubs and trees (Acacia horrida), so that such places resemble both the prairies of North America and the savannas of South America; similar places are found in Angola.

The eucalyptus forests of Australia are quite similar to the "campos cerratos" of the Brazilians; they are also light and so sparse (the trees are far apart from one another and their crowns do not meet) that it is easy to walk in them and even drive in any direction; the soil in such forests in the rainy season is covered with green thickets, consisting mainly of cereals; During the dry season, the soil is exposed.

In areas located a few degrees north and south of the equator, the climate is usually very dry. However, during certain months it gets very hot and rainy. Such places, located throughout the world, are called savannah zones. This name comes from the African savanna, which is the largest region with this type of climate. When the rain comes The savannah zones are located between the two tropics - lines where twice a year the sun at noon is exactly at its zenith. At such times, it becomes much hotter there and this causes much more sea water to evaporate, which leads to heavy rains. In the savannah regions closest to the equator, the sun is exactly at its zenith at intermediate times of the year (March and September), so that one rainy season is separated by several months. In the savannah areas furthest from the equator, both rainy seasons are so close in time to each other that they practically merge into one. The duration of the rainy period is from eight to nine months, and at the equatorial borders - from two to three. What grows in the savannah? Living conditions in the savannah are very harsh. The soil contains few nutrients; during dry seasons it dries out, and during wet seasons it becomes swampy. In addition, fires often occur there at the end of dry seasons. Plants that have adapted to savannah conditions are very cruel.

Thousands of different herbs grow there. But trees, in order to survive, need some specific qualities to protect them from drought and fire. For example, the baobab tree is distinguished by a thick, fire-protected trunk that, like a sponge, can store water reserves. Its long roots absorb moisture deep underground. Acacia has a wide, flat crown that creates shade for the leaves growing below, thereby protecting them from drying out.

Savannah Wild Life Many areas of the savannah are now used for ranching and wild life there has completely disappeared. However, in the African savannah there are huge national parks where wild animals still live. Savannah animals were forced to adapt to survive in drought conditions. Large herbivores, such as giraffes, zebras, wildebeest, elephants and rhinoceroses, are capable of traveling great distances and, if a place became too dry, they went to where it rained and where there was a lot of vegetation. Predators such as lions, cheetahs and hyenas hunted the wandering herds of animals. It is difficult for small animals to go in search of water, so they prefer to hibernate throughout the dry season. This is called summer hibernation.

These are flat or slightly rolling plains, where open, grassy areas alternate with groups of trees or dense thickets of thorny bushes. During the rainy season, the savanna is covered with tall grass, which turns yellow and burns out with the onset of the dry season. Agriculture in the savanna area is almost undeveloped, and the main occupation of the local population is cattle breeding.

Soils and vegetation cover

In savannas, soils are developed, collectively called red-brown; when distinguishing them into a special type, they use geographical characteristics, i.e. they include open areas with grassy cover. They are characterized by a greater or lesser content of humus from the decomposition of herbaceous vegetation, as a result of which such soils are rich in nutrients. In periodically moistened soils, in savannas, the processes of enrichment with sesquioxides occur more vigorously than in the red soils of tropical rainforests, and often lead to the formation of a shell, that is, a hard crust on the surface, or the fertile granular structure of the soil mentioned above.

In savannas, the sharp seasonality of precipitation is reflected in the processes of soil formation: during the rainy period, rapid and vigorous leaching of soil occurs, while in the dry period, due to the strong heating of the surface layers, the reverse process occurs - the rise of soil solutions. Therefore, humus accumulates to a greater extent in dry savannas and steppes with a long rainless period. Savannah soils, depending on the amount of precipitation and the duration of the dry period, are very diverse, forming transitions from lateritic and red-brown soils of cereal savannas to black and chernozem soils of dry savannas. Depending on the combination of climatic and soil conditions, as well as the topography, savannas are distinguished by a wide variety of plant communities and overall character aspects.

Basic processes of soil formation

Soils develop on ancient continental leveling surfaces in two-season climate zones with annual precipitation of 400-500 mm. In terms of humidity, the climate is arid, with an average annual temperature of + 19°, +22°, an average January temperature of +24°, +27°, and of July + 14°, +17°.

The soils are red-brown subarid with carbonate nodules on ancient crusts and brown tropical subarid. They are distributed mainly on the East African plateau, the Ethiopian highlands, in the Kalahari depression, as well as in the Sahel zone (on the border with the Sahara). The soils develop in arid tropical conditions with a dry season of 4-6 months, with annual precipitation from 200 to 500 mm, and in the Guinean part - up to 700 mm. The average annual temperature reaches + 26°, +28°. Absolute heights within the plateau are 300-500 m, and on the plateaus 1000-1500 m.

Main soil types

The soils of the formation are distributed within the Sahel zone, the Ethiopian Highlands and the East African Plateau, as well as in the arid regions of the Kalahari and Karoo. The soils of the formation occupy 6,262.2 thousand square meters. km. They are grouped by region based on the length of the dry season: about four months, more than four months and with a long dry season. Hydromorphic and semi-hydromorphic soils 752.2 thousand square meters. km.

Areas with a dry season of about four months.

The soils are red-brown, distributed in North Africa between longitudes 15° and 30° south of the zone of brown subarid tropical soils and north of ferruginous tropical soils, as well as in South Africa on the submontane plains west of the Drakensberg Mountains. Soils develop on ancient continental leveling surfaces in two-season climate zones with annual precipitation of 400-500 mm. In terms of humidity, the climate is arid, with an average annual temperature of + 19°, +22°, an average January temperature of +24°, +27°, and of July + 14°, +17°.

The vegetation is savanna combined with lightened acacia forests.

Red-brown soils, according to R. Mainen (1962), are characterized by a total profile thickness of not exceeding two meters.

In the soil above there is a yellowish-grayish or brownish crust 1-2 cm thick, usually with a leafy structure (which is also typical for brown arid soils of the USSR). Under the crust, to a depth of 20 cm, there is a loose horizon with a reddish tint, clayey with a clearly defined nutty structure. At a depth of 50-100 cm - horizon B is red in color, denser, hardening, which indicates lateritism; the structure is coarsely flat and blocky. From about 100 cm, an ocher-colored horizon begins, lighter towards the bottom. At a depth of 200 cm, small carbonate nodules appear. The surrounding soil mass is not always carbonate.

The bases of red-brown soils are often washed away. Significant content of free iron. In terms of mechanical composition, the soils are dominated by fine sand and are characterized by an increase in clay content in the B horizon. The humus content is from 0.5 to 1%, and it decreases quite sharply downwards, which is also typical for ferruginous tropical soils. Mineralization of humus is quite fast. The C^ ratio is narrow (3-6). The pH value is neutral to slightly acidic. The absorption capacity is low (2 mEq per 100 g of soil), which is due to both the light mechanical composition and the presence of kaolinite. Along with kaolinite, illite is also present in soils.

Red-brown eutrophic (saturated) soils are formed on outcrops of basic, mainly volcanic, rocks of Central Africa in the zone of ferruginous tropical soils.

Areas with red-brown soils are used as pastures; In addition, millet and peanuts are grown on them.

Areas with a dry season of more than four months.

Vegetation - dry and deserted a. Baths with acacias are also common in acacia-euphorbia savannas.

Red-brown subarid soils are usually carbonate, sometimes fused. In general, they are distinguished by lower thickness of horizons and some color features. According to M.A. Glazovskaya (1975), the humus horizon does not exceed 15 cm in thickness, horizon B is only 30 cm thick, predominantly blocky, brownish or reddish-brown, with carbonate nodules. Below horizon B is a carbonate horizon. The soils are low in humus (0.3-0.5%), the humus composition is dominated by fulvic acids and humins. The reaction is neutral in the Iv horizon in the upper part of horizon B, and below it is alkaline.

The red-brown subarid soils of the savanna north of the Luga - Lingere - Matam line are low in humus (0.25-0.5%), often gravelly-stony, and have a neutral reaction. The thickness of their humus horizon does not exceed 50 cm. The C:K ratio in most cases is 4-9. The content of exchangeable bases in the surface horizon is about 2 mEq per 100 g of soil; it increases deeper into the profile. The composition of absorbed bases is dominated by Ca and Mg. These soils are used for grazing and sometimes in agriculture. If you abandon archaic methods of use (excessive grazing, burning of grass, cultivation for crops in the dry season), you can not be afraid of their degradation. Agricultural development of soils with modern methods of agricultural technology should be limited.

On the Marrakesh plain there are red-brown subarid thyrsified soils (on the soil map of Africa, due to their very small areas, they are included in the areas of other soils). They are used for grain crops with irrigation. They are left as fallow pastures for 6-18 months. Overgrazing and the creation of a dry period affect soil formation. During the dry period, cracking, compaction, and lamellarity appear in the soils in the upper layer to a depth of 15 cm. Tariffed soil profile:

About 15 cm - red, clayey-loamy, medium nutty, porous (arable);

15-60 cm - brown-red, clayey, coarse-prismatic, slightly cubic, very dense;

60-100 cm - brown-red, clayey, polyhedral, coarsely lumpy with gloss;

100-120 cm - brownish-reddish, lamellar, accumulation of powdery carbonates;

120-140 cm - brown, clayey-loamy, almost structureless, silty carbonates. The entire profile is carbonate.

The C ratio is about 10. Clay-humus soil complexes are stable. After the destruction of humus, the color of the soil becomes brown-red. Exchangeable bases have the following composition: calcium 55-80%, magnesium 15-30%, sodium 5-15%. Soils with better drainage and on lighter rocks become red and lose their structure.

Irrigation without taking into account the specific properties of soils can lead to severe thirsification, mainly when using saline waters. When using these soils, special attention is paid to the application of organic fertilizers.

Brown tropical subarid soils were most vividly and genetically described by R. Magnin. He established the specificity of brown subarid soils, which are formed in a two-season climate, when short-term but massive rains fall within three months. In the dry and hot season, the temperature reaches +45° C. The average annual temperature in this zone is +27°, +28°, the amount of precipitation is 200-350 mm. During the rainy season, a significant grass cover appears, but mainly the root system is involved in soil processes; due to frequent fires, the upper tier is destroyed. The vegetation cover is formed by grasses (aristides, anthropogons) and woody forms (thorny grass savanna with acacias, in which plants often have umbrella-shaped forms).

The general characteristics of the profile and chemical properties are partially similar to the properties of brown soils in extratropical regions. For example, the thickness of the profile reaches 100 cm, the upper horizon is structural, slightly leafy. At deeper levels, prism-like and granular structures are observed; carbonates usually appear from a depth of 30 cm. Humus content is from 1 to 2%. C ratio = 8, pH value = 6.5-7.4. The given characteristics are close to the data for brown semi-desert soils of Kazakhstan. At the same time, the influence of the tropical climate is manifested in the following features of the described soils: deep and uniform staining with humus is noted, although its content is low; carbonate content is weaker than in brown extratropical soils, and salinity is also weaker; the appearance of slitization in less drained conditions and the transition to black tropical soils are specific; a significant amount of free iron, reaching 70-75% of the total.

The composition of humus is dominated by gray humic acids associated with calcium (more than 70%). Soil solutions have good buffering capacity. A lighter mechanical composition of the upper horizons is noted, which is associated with sandification, blowing out, or planar washout of fine particles. Clay migration along the profile is not observed, therefore the clay content of deeper horizons is explained mainly by neosynthesis processes in an alkaline environment (mixtures of kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite have been identified).

Areas with brown tropical subarid soils are suitable for pastures. Modern drilling methods make it possible to obtain water from deep wells for watering (it should be noted that the concentration of herds at watering holes leads to vegetation degradation). Taking advantage of the rainy season, groundnuts and millets are cultivated. In the valleys, the floodplain moisture regime is favorable for corn, rice and millet.

Areas with a long dry season.

The soils are black tropical. Some authors call them margallitic. The most widely accepted name is Vertisol. A vast array of these soils stretches along the western slopes of the mountains of East Africa, in the interfluves of the Blue Nile, Omo and White Nile. To the west of the White Nile, this massif is adjacent to zones of tropical ferruginous and ferrallitic soils. Significant areas of black tropical soils are located south of the Lake Chad depression, southeast of Lake Victoria and in the upper reaches of the Niger River. In southern Africa, these soils are rare.

Black tropical soils are formed at an average annual temperature of + 25°, + 28° and the amount of annual precipitation from 200 to 1000 mm. Characterized by a sharp alternation of wet and dry seasons. The latter lasts 5-8 months. In terms of humidity, the climate is classified as periodically arid. The vegetation on these soils is a forest savannah with acacias and baobabs. In dry areas, shrub savanna is common. In arid dry savannas, various species of bearded vulture, drina, etc. appear.

Black tropical soils develop on ancient alluvial plains, in depressions of various origins, as well as on plateaus and peneplains with flat and gently undulating terrain. In the latter case, they are formed according to the automorphic type. The soil-forming rocks are predominantly heavy montmorillonite clays and weathering products of mainly basic volcanic rocks.

A detailed summary description of these soils was made by R. Dudal (Villa, 1966) based on his studies in Africa and Indonesia.

The geochemical conditions for the formation of black tropical soils in valleys and depressions are unique. Thus, in the Blue Nile basin, their formation is associated with the influence of water flowing from the Ethiopian Highlands. The White Nile flows along the edge of the graben, where volcanic activity is significant and corresponding rocks (lavas and ashes) saturated with bases are widespread. The Niger Basin and Kalahari do not receive base-rich waters, and black tropical soils are rare in this basin. In the Congo Basin, despite the connection of alluvial strata with the main rocks, black tropical soils do not develop, since climatic conditions (high precipitation) favor intensive leaching of the bases.

The most characteristic properties of black tropical soils are dark color with a low humus content, alkaline or close to neutral reaction, plasticity, viscosity and swelling when wet. The soil structure ranges from lumpy to blocky. During the dry season, soils crack to a depth of two meters. The upper, usually looser layers are poured into these cracks, which leads to mixing of the soil mass over time. On the surface of the soil, hummocks with cracks of a polygonal pattern are formed; the cracks cover the entire profile. The humus content in black soils of Africa ranges from 0.5 to 3.5%. The absorption capacity reaches 25-60 or more mEq per 100 g of soil. the composition of absorbed bases is dominated by Mg and, to a lesser extent, Ca. There is a low potassium content (0.1-0.4 mEq per 100 g of soil). Typically, these soils contain carbonates (diffusely or in the form of small pea-shaped nodules); sulfates and chlorides are observed in the most arid conditions. On more clayey varieties of black tropical soils, long-term stagnation of atmospheric precipitation occurs, the appearance of ferrous nodules and easily soluble salts at the bottom of the profile. A specific microrelief is created - finely hilly, fissured (gilgai).

The genetic properties of the described soils are determined by the formation of montmorillonite swelling clays in them by synthesis on site or as a result of the introduction of substances into depressions. In addition to montmorillonite, clay minerals contain illite, and in more humid conditions kaolinite is found. It is noted that in the case of illite predominance, but in the presence of montmorillonite, the properties of swelling clays still appear.

The dark color of tropical black soils is explained by special forms of bonding of organic matter with clays. These soils are unique in the type of humus and differ from the humus of chernozems in their fulvate content and strong bonds with iron. The ratio of C-humic acids to C-fulvic acids is less than 1 (Ponomareva, 1965).

Research in the 60s and 70s refuted the idea of considering black tropical soils as an analogue of chernozems. Some authors consider black tropical soils with montmorillonite clays to be intrazonal. However, already in the work of F. Duchaufour (1970), the opinion was expressed that soils with swelling clays can be divided into tropical and Mediterranean (thyrsos). In addition, it is known that black tropical soils develop both in automorphic conditions (for example, on basic rocks in Ethiopia) and in depressions, along valleys and terraces, where the soils have a hydromorphic genesis. These different conditions of soil formation do not have an intrazonal character.

Agricultural development of black tropical soils is widespread in more humid areas, since these soils are distinguished by high biological activity, have a rich mineralogical composition, retain moisture, and with systematic cultivation and special agricultural technology they acquire a loose, granular-clumpy structure at the top. With irrigation, cotton, rice, sorghum, and sugar cane are grown on them, and without irrigation, corn and grains are grown. The use of moisture by plants (natural or during irrigation) faces great difficulties, since the physical properties of soils (their compactness, rapid swimming) determine poor filtration. Drainage is difficult due to poor water permeability, and increased evaporation creates a threat of salinization. However, plowing and leaving blocks in the field, applying phosphorus, nitrogen, manure and mulching improve soils.

In addition, cultivation of the field in the form of ridges is practiced. The use of this agricultural technology allows you to obtain high yields. This is all the more valuable for those areas where black tropical soils are developed in combination with less fertile soils, such as ferruginous tropical, red-brown dry savannahs!

Black tropical soils of ground moisture and surface stagnation of water (hydromorphic verti-sols) are common in depressions, on high river terraces and along microrelief depressions. They differ in carbonate content, salinity, along with gleyization at the bottom of the profile. Surface waterlogging increases swelling and cracking of soils, which creates a characteristic microrelief (gilgai) that prevents their use.

On low river terraces, dark meadow soils, called in West Africa, form.

Savannah plant communities

From the border of the Giles begins the zone of cereal savanna, where the rainy period lasts 9-10 months a year with a total precipitation of 1500-1000 mm .

1. A typical grass savanna is a space completely covered with tall grasses, predominantly grasses, with sparsely standing individual trees, shrubs or groups of trees. Most plants are hydrophytic in nature due to the fact that during the rainy season the air humidity in savannas resembles a tropical forest. However, plants of a xerophytic nature also appear that adapt to the transfer of dry triode. Unlike hydrophytes, they have smaller leaves and other adaptations to reduce evaporation.

During the dry period, grasses burn out, some types of trees shed their leaves, although others lose them only shortly before new ones appear; the savannah turns yellow; dried grass is burned annually to fertilize the soil.1 The harm that these fires cause to vegetation is very great, since it disrupts the normal cycle of winter dormancy of plants, but at the same time it also causes their vital activity: after the fire, young grass quickly appears. When the rainy season comes, cereals and other herbs grow amazingly quickly, and trees become covered with leaves. In the grass savanna, the grass cover reaches a height of 2-3 m, and in low places 5 m.

The typical grasses here are: elephant grass (Pinnisetum purpureum, P. Benthami), Andropogon species, etc., with long, wide, hairy leaves of a xerophytic appearance. Of the trees, oil palm (Elaeis gui-neensis) 8-12 should be noted m heights, pandanus, butter tree (Buthy-rospermum), Bauhinia reticulata - evergreen tree with wide leaves. Baobab (Adansonla digitata) and various species of doum palm (Hiphaena) are also common. Along the river valleys, several kilometers wide, gallery forests, reminiscent of gilles, with many palm trees, stretch.

2. Grass savannas are gradually replaced by acacia ones. They are characterized by a continuous cover of grasses of lower height - from 1 to 1.5 m; of the trees they are dominated by various types of acacias with a dense umbrella-shaped crown, for example the species: Acacia albida, A. arabica, A. giraffae, etc. In addition to acacias, one of the characteristic trees in such savannas is the baobab, or monkey breadfruit, reaching 4 m in diameter and 25 m height, containing a significant amount of water in a loose, fleshy trunk.

3. In drier areas, where the rainless period lasts from five to three months, dry, spiny semi-savannas predominate. For most of the year, trees and shrubs in these areas remain without leaves; low grasses (Aristida, Panicum) often do not form a continuous cover; among cereals grow low up to 4 m heights, thorny trees (types of Acacia, Terminalia, etc.)

This community is also called the steppe by many researchers. This term is widespread in the literature on African vegetation, but does not fully correspond to the understanding of our term “steppe”.

4. Dry spiny semi-savannas are replaced with distance from acacia savannas by the so-called thorny bush savanna. It reaches 18-19° south. sh., occupying most of the Kalahari (except for the west). In South Africa on the Boer plateaus they are called "Veld". In East Africa, these communities are less developed and are characteristic mainly of the Somali peninsula. The dry period has been going on for 7-9 months, and the vegetation takes on a distinctly xerophytic character. The number of trees found decreases, the trees become shorter, and new species with finely feathered leaves and thorns appear. It is characteristic that the Bauhinia reticulata tree in this zone has smaller leaves and sheds them, while in the savanna it is evergreen. In addition to bauhinia, there are thorny low-growing acacias, baobab etc. Succulent plants appear that store water for long rainless months (species of euphorbia), shrubs and subshrubs. The shrubs have sparse, small, dense leaves, thorns and are covered with white hairs, giving them a silver-gray appearance. Subshrubs have a cushion shape, are found among grass, and form pure associations in rocky areas. The cereal cover becomes more sparse and lower (no more than 0.8-1 m heights), "often forms turf. Andropogon species are replaced by more xerophytic Aristida species.

Despite a number of common characteristics, steppes, like savannas, are distinguished by significant diversity, which makes their division very difficult.

Animal worldsavannah

The fauna of the savannah is a unique phenomenon. In no corner of the Earth in human memory has there been such an abundance of large animals as in the African savannas. Back at the beginning of the 20th century. Countless herds of herbivores roamed the vast savannahs, moving from one pasture to another or in search of watering places.

They were accompanied by numerous predators - lions, leopards, hyenas, cheetahs. The predators were followed by carrion eaters - vultures, jackals... The indigenous population of Africa has been hunting for a long time. However, as long as man was armed primitively, a kind of balance was maintained between the decline of animals and the increase in their numbers. With the arrival of white colonialists armed with firearms, the situation changed radically. Due to excessive hunting, the number of animals quickly decreased, and some species, such as the quagga, white-tailed wildebeest, and blue horse antelope, were completely exterminated.

The fencing of private property, the construction of roads, steppe fires, the plowing of large areas and the expansion of cattle breeding have aggravated the plight of wild animals. Finally, the Europeans, unsuccessfully trying to fight the tsetse fly, staged a grandiose massacre, and more than 300 thousand elephants, giraffes, buffalos, zebras, wildebeest and other antelopes were shot from rifles and machine guns from cars. Many animals also died from plague brought with cattle. Now you can drive hundreds of kilometers through savannahs and not see a single large animal. Grant's Gazelle. Fortunately, there were far-sighted people who insisted on creating nature reserves where all hunting and economic activity were prohibited.

The governments of the newly independent states of Africa, which threw off the yoke of colonialism, strengthened and expanded the network of such reserves - the last refuges of wild animals. Only there can a person still admire the view of the primeval savannah. Horse antelope. Among the many species of ungulates that inhabit the African savannas, the most numerous are the blue wildebeest, which belong to the subfamily of cow antelopes. Oryx. The appearance of the wildebeest is so unique that you recognize it at first sight: a short, dense body on thin legs, a heavy head, overgrown with a mane and decorated with sharp horns, and a fluffy, almost horse-like tail. Next to herds of wildebeest you can always find herds of African horses - zebras.

Also characteristic of the savanna, but less numerous are gazelles - Thomson's gazelle, which can be recognized from a distance by its black, constantly twitching tail, and the larger and lighter Grant's gazelle. Gazelles are the most elegant and fastest antelopes of the savannah. Blue wildebeest, zebras and gazelles form the main core of herbivores. They are joined, sometimes in large numbers, by red gazelle-like impalas, huge heavy elands, outwardly awkward but exceptionally fleet-footed kongoni, with a narrow long muzzle and steeply curved S-shaped horns. In some places there are many grayish-brown long-horned waterbucks, relatives of the Kongoni - topi, which can be recognized by purple-black spots on the shoulders and thighs, swampbucks - medium-sized slender antelopes with beautiful lyre-shaped horns.

Rare antelopes, which can be found only by chance even in nature reserves, include oryxes, whose long straight horns resemble a sword, powerful horse antelopes and inhabitants of the bush savannah - kudu. The horns of the kudu, twisted into a gentle spiral, are rightfully considered the most beautiful. One of the most typical animals of the African savanna is the giraffe. Once numerous, giraffes became one of the first victims of white colonists: their huge skins were used to make roofs for carts. Now giraffes are protected everywhere, but their numbers are small. The largest land animal is the African elephant.

Elephants that live in savannas are especially large - the so-called steppe elephants. They differ from forest animals by having wider ears and powerful tusks. By the beginning of this century, the number of elephants had decreased so much that there was a danger of their complete extinction. Thanks to widespread protection and the creation of reserves, there are now even more elephants in Africa than there were a hundred years ago. They mainly live in nature reserves and, forced to feed in a limited area, quickly destroy vegetation. Even more fearful was the fate of the black and white rhinoceroses. Their horns, which are valued four times more than ivory, have long been a coveted prey for poachers.

Nature reserves helped preserve these animals too. Warthog African buffalo. Black rhinoceros and clawed lapwing. There are many predators in the African savannas. Among them, the first place undoubtedly belongs to the lion. Lions usually live in groups - prides, which include both adult males and females, and growing youth. Responsibilities between the members of the pride are distributed very clearly: the lighter and more agile lionesses provide the pride with food, and the larger and stronger males are responsible for protecting the territory. The prey of lions includes zebras, wildebeest, and kongoni, but on occasion, lions willingly eat smaller animals and even carrion.

Experiments have shown that lions can be easily lured by playing a tape recording of a hyena roll call. By the way, only recently has it become reliably known that hyenas often attack people and are very dangerous. Cheetah. The secretary bird feeds the Lion chick. Other predators of the savannah include the leopard and cheetah. These large cats, somewhat similar in appearance but completely different in lifestyle, have now become quite rare. The cheetah's main prey is gazelles, while the leopard is a more versatile hunter: in addition to small antelopes, it successfully hunts African wild pigs - warthogs and especially baboons.

When almost all leopards were exterminated in Africa, baboons and warthogs multiplied and became a real disaster for crops. The leopards had to be taken under protection. Hyena with cubs. African savannas are unusually rich in birds. The largest modern bird, the African ostrich, lives only in the savannah. Trees are often completely covered with nests of weavers of many species, which, outside the breeding season, wander in flocks of thousands in search of food and often completely destroy the harvest of millet and wheat. In the bush savannah, the relatives of our chickens - guinea fowl, numerous species of doves, rollers, and bee-eaters - are especially striking.

A picture of the animal world of the African savannah would be incomplete without mentioning termites. These insects are represented in Africa by dozens of species. They are one of the main consumers of plant residues. Termite buildings, which have their own special shape for each species, are a characteristic detail of the savannah landscape. The fauna of the savannah has been developing as a single independent whole for a long time. Therefore, the degree of adaptation of the entire complex of animals to each other and of each individual species to specific conditions is very high.

Such adaptations include, first of all, a strict separation according to the method of feeding and the composition of the main feed. The vegetation cover of the savannah can only feed a huge number of animals because some species use grass, others use young shoots of shrubs, others use bark, and others use buds and buds. Moreover, different species of animals take the same shoots from different heights. Elephants and giraffes, for example, feed at the height of the tree crown, the giraffe gazelle and the great kudu reach shoots located one and a half to two meters from the ground, and the black rhinoceros, as a rule, plucks shoots close to the ground.

The same division is observed in purely herbivorous animals: what the wildebeest likes does not attract the zebra at all, and the zebra, in turn, happily nibbles the grass, past which gazelles pass indifferently. African ostriches. The second thing that makes the savanna highly productive is the high mobility of animals. Wild ungulates are almost constantly on the move; they never graze pastures the way livestock does. Regular migrations, i.e. movements, of herbivores of the African savannah, covering hundreds of kilometers, allow vegetation to fully recover in a relatively short period of time.

It is not surprising that in recent years the idea has emerged and strengthened that reasonable, scientifically based exploitation of wild ungulates promises greater prospects than traditional cattle breeding, which is primitive and unproductive. These issues are now being intensively developed in a number of African countries. Australia is the only continent where marsupials have survived. Pictured: koala marsupial bear. The fauna of the African savannah is of great cultural and aesthetic importance. Untouched corners with pristine rich fauna literally attract hundreds of thousands of tourists. Every African reserve is a source of joy for many, many people.

Birds

With the first rains, birds begin nesting in the savannah. There are many weaver birds in the savannahs. In the dry season, they look like inconspicuous sparrows and fly in flocks. But as soon as the rains begin, the flocks break up and the males put on a bright mating plumage. Widespread weavers of the genus Eir1ec1es sport red-black or yellow-black plumage.

The male orange weaver ( Eir1ecles orix) orange-red plumage, the crown and belly are black, the wings are brown. When he shows off in front of the female, it seems as if a small ball lightning is swinging on the stem. Having ruffled his red feathers, he becomes twice as big. From time to time, the cavalier takes off briefly, chirping his song. Weavers usually nest in tall grass or near wetlands, and can be seen from almost a kilometer away. Each male jealously guards his territory, allowing in only a few females, who lay their eggs in small oval nests among the grass.

Yellow-black or red-black long-tailed weavers of the genus Coliuspasser, often called widowbirds, prefer the drier savannah. In them, too, the male flaunts himself on tall stems of grass or on bushes, attracting females to his territory. And its long tail feathers play a role in aerial games, especially developed in some East African species.

Although West Africa is poorer than East Africa in species from the genera Eir1ec1es And, Coliuspasser however, during the rainy season, the tall grass savannah of West Africa is literally teeming with these birds. The mating displays of all weavers are somewhat reminiscent of the mating behavior of some American weavers, in particular the red-winged weaver. This is one example of the appearance of similar traits in groups that are distant from each other.

Other notable birds of the savannah include the brilliant starlings with dark blue and purple plumage, rollers with bluish and dark blue plumage and a characteristic hoarse call, orange-black hoopoes with a large crest and, finally, hornbills (genus Tockus). There are numerous turtle doves and small pigeons, whose pleasant voices greet the dawn and are heard in the midday heat. There are fewer chickens in the savannas, and devastating fires are to blame for this.

Harmattan reaches the southern savannahs as if in waves, interspersed with periods of wet weather that end in storms. And each new wave of harmattan brings with it a new wave of migrants, including such dissimilar birds as the white-headed kingfisher ( Ha1suop leucocephalus), gray toko ( Tockus nasutus) and white-necked bee-eater ( Aerops albicollis). Among other guests we also see various birds of prey, nightjars, rollers and others. The reason for the migrations of some of these birds is not entirely clear; For example, the white-headed kingfisher, which feeds on insects and fish, can find food in the savannah at any time of the year, and in East Africa the same kingfisher constantly lives along rivers. And in the described savannas, it nests in burrows in dry thickets scorched by fires or along river banks, leaving this habitat with the onset of rains.

The yellow-billed toko (Tockus flavirostris), which lives in the savannas of Africa, belongs to the hornbills, one of the most interesting families of the order Coraciiformes. Hornbills are notable for their huge beaks, often with an additional projection in the form of a crest or horn (the toko does not have such a projection). The beak, which at first glance seems massive, is actually very light, as it consists of spongy bone tissue. Hornbills nest in hollows, and the male, in order to protect the female and offspring from enemies, walls up the entrance to the hollow with clay, leaving only a tiny hole through which he feeds the female and chicks. At this time, the female moults and becomes very fat, which is why it is considered a delicacy among local residents. Although hornbills feed primarily on fruits, they are omnivores. There are also scavengers among them, like the African horned crow.

African black kite ( Milvus migrans parasitus) and red-tailed buzzard ( Biteo auguralis) in dry season they fly south to the savannahs, and after breeding they return to the north. Two other raptors, the hawk buzzard ( Vitastus rufepennis) and a very small, tern-like fork-tailed kite ( Chelictinia riocourii), on the contrary, they breed during the rainy season in the shrubby semi-desert in the north, and in the dry season they fly to the savannas. White-necked bee-eaters also migrate in large flocks across the savannah to winter in the forests in the south. So these savannas simultaneously host winter migratory birds from the Palearctic regions, migratory dry-season breeding birds, and migratory non-dry-season breeding birds.

Some of these West African migrations form a kind of tidal movement between northern semi-arid scrubland and savannah, with some birds crossing the equator. Rain stork ( Sphenorynchus abdimii), which does not like to limit itself in food, breeds during the rainy season in the savannas of the north of the Republic of Guinea and the south of the Sudanese transition zone. In the villages where it nests, residents greet it as a harbinger of rain. When the breeding season ends, the stork heads south, crossing the East African grasslands during the rains in October - November. When the weather is dry in the north and rainy in the south, it crosses wet grasslands from Tanzania to the Transvaal. Previously, rain storks accompanied swarms of locusts, but they also readily feed on grasshoppers and frogs. When the tropical rains come to an end in the south, the storks head north again as the rains begin in East Africa in March and April. In April, just before the start of the main rainy season, they reach their nesting sites. Thus, this bird spends its entire life in the savannah or in grasslands in wet weather, which provide it with abundant food.

The pennant nightjar (Semeiophorus vexillarius) migrates in the opposite direction. It breeds during the rainy season in the southern tropics, between September and February, then heads north and appears in the northern tropics when it rains. This bird also spends most of its life in wet savannas during the rainy seasons. And unlike most ground-nesting nightjars, nightjars lay eggs in rainy weather.

During the mating season, this nightjar develops two long white “pennants” due to the growth of the inner pair of primary flight feathers. When he flies, two white ribbons appear to be trailing behind him. The mating dress of the nightjar is even more amazing. Macrodipteryx longipennis. It has the same inner pair of flight feathers extended into a flexible rod with a fan at the end, reminiscent of a tennis racket, and during mating games it seems that these “rackets” themselves hover over the bird. This nightjar is also migratory, but during the dry season it nests in the southern part of its range.

In any regular migration there must be a starting factor that gives impetus to the whole process, and an ending factor, in other words, the goal achieved by migration.

A number of factors were cited as the reason for the migration of birds from the northern countries of the globe, such as: air temperature, abundance of food, different lengths of daylight at different times of the year. Intertropical migrations are often explained by unconvincing reference to local fluctuations in food resources.

However, many intertropical and transequatorial migrations are too regular and too long to be satisfied with such an explanation.

The rain stork in the Transvaal cannot know that while there is little food in its winter quarters, there is plenty of it in the Sudan. There must be some motivating reason for the migrations that the rain stork or fork-tailed kite make. And since neither the amount of food nor the length of daylight (in tropical latitudes it hardly fluctuates) gives us a comprehensive explanation, it seems that in fact the impetus for intertropical migrations is a sudden or sharp change in weather in the savannas.

The small inhabitants of the savannas are countless. Birds are very widely represented on the plains, ranging from the largest - ostriches, large and small bustards, plovers, hazel grouses, and ending with larks, pipits and other granivorous birds. Among the birds there are also predators. Of these, the most characteristic is the secretary bird. It resembles an eagle, with the only difference that it lives on the ground and is the only bird of prey that hunts, walking through the grassy expanses. Among the other bird predators common here are the buzzard ( Biteo rufofuscus), black-winged kite ( E1anus caeruleus), buffoon eagle ( Terathopius ecaudatus). African kestrel ( Falco rupicoloides), short-eared owl ( ASIO capensis).

The African marabou (Leptoptilos crumeniferus), which lives in hot regions of Africa, although it belongs to storks, differs from them in its huge massive beak, as wide as the head at the base. Like many other scavengers, the head and neck of the marabou are not feathered and are covered with sparse down. The head of the marabou is reddish, the neck is blue. On the neck there is an unattractive pinkish fleshy pouch on which the marabou places its beak. At the same time, the marabou is not without some elegance: its bare, warty neck is surrounded by a small collar of white fluffy feathers, and at the base of its tail grow several thin curly feathers, which used to decorate hats. It seeks out prey like a vulture, soaring at high altitudes. The powerful beak allows the marabou to tear the tough skin of a buffalo. The marabou throws a piece of food into the air, then catches it and swallows it. He often visits garbage dumps, where he eats all kinds of garbage. They nest in large colonies along the banks of water bodies, often together with pelicans. Large nests are made in trees or rocks.

The secretary bird (Sagittarius serpentarius) is the only species of the secretary bird in the order of birds of prey. This is a tall, sometimes more than a meter, long-legged bird that lives in the African savannas south of the Sahara. The secretary got its name from the tuft of feathers on its head, which usually hangs like a feather behind a scribe’s ear, and when the bird is excited, it rises upward. The secretary spends most of his time walking on the ground and looking for prey: lizards, snakes, small animals, locusts. The secretary kills large prey with blows of his legs and beak. The secretary's claws, unlike those of other birds of prey, are blunt and wide, adapted for running and not for grasping prey. The secretaries spend the night sitting in trees, where they make their nests.

In winter the plains are teeming with harriers, kestrels and eagles that have flown from Europe. Four or five species of vultures, which almost never kill their prey themselves, although they feed exclusively on meat, easily find food here. Of these, the most numerous are African vultures ( Sups africanus) and Rüppel's vultures ( Surs rueppellii). Both nest in colonies, one in trees, the other on rocky cliffs, and both search for carrion, often revealing the location of large predators such as lions.

African ostriches (Struthio camelus massaicus) widespread on grass plains. Three males show off in front of the female, flapping their wings. The male's tail standing straight up in the center indicates his aggressive intentions.

The bird life is magnificent, especially during the dry season when many birds nest on the extensive sandbanks. Here you can see a Nile Sandpiper alongside Spur-bladed Lapwings ( Sarciophorus tectus And Afribyx senegallus) and a tiny white-breasted sandpiper ( Leucopolius marginatus There are also African cutwaters ( Rynchops flavirostris), bizarre, tern-like birds whose lower beak is much longer than the upper and is adapted for catching tiny fish from the surface of quiet pools. True terns - white-winged tern ( Chlidonias leu coptera), gull-billed ( Gelochelidon nilotica) and small ( Sterna albifrons) -fly over the water, sometimes accompanied by black whales ( Larus fuscus). Most terns are migratory birds, but little terns nest on sandbanks. Storks, ibises, jacanas, ducks and geese are found in the creeks and floodplain swamps of river plains. The most attractive of all the inhabitants of the sandbanks is the gray tirkushka ( Galachrusia cinerea). Light as leaves blown by the wind, these feathered elves feed primarily on insects. When a person approaches nests in the shallows, the tirkushka, protecting its offspring, diverts attention to itself: it drags its wing and pretends to be wounded. And eggs laid in holes in the sand are not immediately noticeable due to sand-colored specks.

Another collar shirt ( Ca1achrysia pichalis) has a dark color and is easy to notice on the sand; therefore, she prefers to nest on rocky islands or on rocky river rifts, where her plumage blends into the general background. The color of the eggs of the collared tiger also matches the dark stones. There is also a third, larger, meadow tirkushka ( Glareola pratincola boweni), which rests and nests on mudflats, almost blending into their dark background.

If tirkushki are masters of camouflage, then bee-eaters immediately catch the eye. On any of the local rivers you will certainly notice schools of bee-eaters. The three most common species of African bee-eaters are the pink bee-eater ( Merops malimbicus), red ( Merops nubicus) and redneck ( Melittophagus bullocki). The migratory European bee-eater also winters here ( Merops apiaster) and the widespread bee-eater ( Melittophagus pusillus), which is kept in pairs.

Red and red-necked bee-eaters nest in burrows they dig in steep banks. A colony of five thousand pairs of red bee-eaters is a bright, colorful spot, visible for many kilometers. Pink bee-eaters differ from the first two in that they nest in sloping burrows on flat sandbanks. It happens that the entire sandbank is dotted with burrows. Bee-eaters chasing insects is a common sight on the local rivers. They are often accompanied by many European and other swallows. There are six to seven species of swallows and swifts, and one of them, the gray-tailed swallow( Hirundo griseopyga), nests in sloping burrows on flat shallows.

Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) are distributed throughout much of Africa. The name of these birds comes from the Latin word flama - flame. Indeed, a flock of flamingos taking off, sparkling in the sun with hundreds of scarlet wings, is an unforgettable sight, and the birds walking through the shallow water resemble pink lotus flowers. The flamingo's wing coverts are bright red, the flight feathers are black, and all steel feathers shimmer in all shades of pink. The red color of flamingo feathers is given by the pigment of the carotenoid group astaxanthin, which enters the bird's body along with food - mainly the crustacean Artemia. With a lack of carotenoids in food, the pink color of the flamingo fades and disappears. Although the birds can swim, they rarely have to do so, as their long legs allow them to walk in shallow water with ease. Driving through the water with its curved beak, equipped with a filtering apparatus, flamingos look for various bottom plants, as well as crustaceans and insects. In ancient times, flamingo meat was considered a delicacy and they were mercilessly exterminated. Thus, at the feasts of the Roman emperors, dishes from flamingo tongues were served. Fortunately, hunting for them has now practically ceased and flamingos are most likely not in danger of becoming extinct.

African vultures (Pseudogyps africanus) are scavenger birds of the subfamily of true vultures, or Old World vultures. These are the most numerous of the birds of prey. They live in savannas in eastern, northern and southern Africa. Large, (body length up to 80 cm, weight 5-7 kg), dark brown birds with an unfeathered head and neck and a long, powerful beak (an adaptation for eating carrion). The feathers around the neck form a “collar”. In the savannah, vultures serve as natural orderlies, feeding exclusively on carrion. To neutralize putrefactive bacteria, vultures have developed high acidity of gastric juice. After a meal, vultures tend to bathe and then dry their feathers while sitting in the trees. They fly long distances in search of food, soaring at high altitudes, using acute vision and a keen sense of smell.

Lake Victoria and other lakes in the zone abound with islets on which colonies of fish-eating birds nest. This includes three species of cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo, P.africanus And P.lugubris), darter ( Anhinga rufa) and various herons, from giant (Ardea goliath) to a very small greenback ( Butorides striatus). In some colonies there are up to ten species of herons. Perhaps the most numerous is the Egyptian heron ( Bubulcus ibis) and black-headed heron ( Ardea melanocephala). Both of them have moved away from a purely aquatic lifestyle and also feed on land, which, of course, greatly expands their habitats. Both herons feed on insects; The blackhead, in addition, catches small rodents.

The sacred ibis also nests here ( Threskiornis aethiopicus) and beak ( Ibis ibis). Another inhabitant of these places is the gaping stork ( Anastomus lamelligerus); its amazing beak, reminiscent of tweezers, is adapted for grasping snails and freshwater mollusks on which this bird feeds. Pink-backed pelicans ( Pe1ecanus rufescens) usually nest alone, but sometimes marabou can be seen among them. For some reason, both of these birds prefer to place their nests in large trees away from water, and the pelicans have to bring food to the chicks from afar every day. Perhaps such colonies are located in places where there used to be a lake or bay rich in food.

Colonies of fish-eating birds in the interior of the continent produce the same impression as bird colonies on the seashore - they amaze with the abundance of birds and vibrant life.

One of them was placed on thorny acacia trees, and when the heron chicks began to crawl out of the nest, they often fell and ran into long thorns. Only a few nests had more than one chick. On another island, Nile monitor lizards and a large python climbed trees and devoured almost all the chicks and eggs. They were helped by a hippopotamus, which came ashore at night and, breaking through the thickets, shook out the chicks from their nests. Chicks that fell into the water became prey for catfish or small crocodiles. Despite all this, herons and storks are still alive today and there are a lot of them on all rivers and lakes. It appears that successful breeding is not necessary for the survival of these bird species.

Of the several unusual birds in the area, the most impressive is the Shoebill ( Ba1aeniceps rex). It inhabits papyrus swamps from Sedda to lakes Kivu and Victoria, but is quite rare everywhere and difficult to see. The shoebill has dark gray plumage and light eyes with a “wise” look. The huge, swollen beak resembles an overturned boat; The edges of the beak are sharp - apparently this helps it grab and kill frogs and fish on which it feeds. The shoebill nests in swamps, and no one has studied it closely.

Probably the closest relative of the hammerhead shoebill ( Scorus umbretta) is a small brown bird, also with a boat-shaped beak. Hammerheads inhabit rivers and swamps, they can also be found near streams in the arid regions of tropical Africa, but they are especially numerous in the Nile basin.

These amazing birds build huge nests, completely different from the nests of storks - vaulted structures made of branches and mud, with the entrance opening facing the water. The central room, coated inside with silt, is about a meter across. It takes the hammerhead about a month to build its nest, and it is very interesting to watch its work. Having built something like a bowl from twigs and stems, he adds a cap of branches to it. And immediately arranges an entrance hole. From above, he covers the entire structure for almost half a meter with reeds, twigs and grass. When the length of the entrance hole and the nesting chamber together is about two meters, the bird, completing construction, coats them inside with silt. The finished structure can support the weight of a person.

The single chamber of this huge nest is reliably insulated from the sun, and when the hammerhead incubates the eggs, it maintains a constant temperature, approximately equal to the bird's body temperature. Snakes and small four-legged predators rarely manage to get inside the nest, but the barn owl ( Tuto albA) often invades the abode of the hammerhead and expels the owner.

Despite the complex design of hammerhead dwellings, they do not appear to reproduce frequently or successfully.

ANDivotns

On the plains, the main role belongs to the lion, cheetah, hyena, wild dog and, to a lesser extent, the leopard. But the king of beasts is the lion. The big-maned lion, such as can be seen in the Ngorongoro Crater, on the Serengeti and Mara plains, is truly a superb animal. True, I am convinced that he is inferior to the Asian tiger, that even the largest lion cannot match the strength of a tiger, but the mane gives the latter a nobility that the tiger lacks. Lions usually gather in family groups called prides. Uniting in such groups gives lions a biological advantage - having killed a large animal, they either immediately devour it all together, or some lions guard the carcass while others go to water. The leopard, which hunts alone, has to hide its prey in a tree if it wants to keep it, but the Asian tiger lies close to the killed animal and protects it from other predators, or hides its prey in the dense jungle. If solitary tigers lived on the East African savannah, vultures and hyenas would inevitably take over their prey, because the predator has nowhere to hide it while he goes to the water.

Lions hunt all the inhabitants of the plains, from gazelles to buffaloes, but most often their prey is large antelopes or zebras. It is believed that lions have a special predilection for wild boars and warthogs and lie in wait for hours at their holes.

A pride usually consists of two or three adult animals and at least twenty cubs. A lion eats about five kilograms of meat a day, and a pride of ten lions must kill a wildebeest every other day to be well-fed. For the most part, lions eat all the edible parts of the wildebeest, and vultures and hyenas feast on the leftovers, but it happens that lions leave nothing behind. At Ngorongoro I observed a pride of twenty-three adult lions killing and eating an entire eland. According to my calculations, each lion accounted for twenty to twenty-five kilograms of meat, which is one sixth of its own weight. After a meal that lasted several hours, the satiated lions lay for four days, hardly moving, and their swollen bellies could be seen drooping every day. On the fifth day they perked up a little, and on the sixth or seventh they were ready to hunt again.

Facts like these raise questions about whether carnivores, particularly lions, have a significant impact on the numbers of animals that make up their natural prey, where these animals greatly outnumber predators.

Apparently, the lion roars to notify his other brethren that he has taken the place here, and warns them to stay away. However, perhaps this is not the only thing the lion wants to say.

It is known that lions even kill young elephants, for example males, who, having decided to lead an independent lifestyle, have strayed from their native herd. The lion usually finishes off smaller animals very quickly. It cannot be otherwise: if hunting involved a long struggle, the lions would receive serious wounds, would no longer be able to hunt, and would eventually die of hunger. It happens, however, that lions are never able to finish off their prey. I have watched more than once how they, having brought a male buffalo to exhaustion, gradually devour him alive, just so as not to find himself before the formidable horns. Lion cubs, just starting to hunt, sometimes also cannot immediately cope with the prey, but soon quickly master hunting techniques. They consist in the fact that, having knocked down the animal, the lion gnaws its throat or, squeezing it, strangles it. I have seen a lion gnaw even the thick neck of a buffalo, although it is hard to believe that he can open his mouth so wide.

When hunting, lions and other predators of the plains are guided mainly by vision, although lions have a well-developed sense of smell - they can follow the scent of an animal. The lion does not distinguish colors well enough, and perhaps the zebras that catch the eye of a person are not so noticeable to the lion.

The ground squirrel (Geosciurus inauris) is a mammal of the squirrel family. In appearance, ground squirrels resemble common squirrels, but live in large colonies in burrows in savannas, semi-deserts and deserts in northeast and west Africa. Body length 22-26 cm, tail 20-25 cm, fur is sparse, hard, without undercoat, the top is reddish-gray, a white stripe runs along the sides from the shoulders to the hips. Often ground squirrels are located in the vicinity of other colonial animals - predators from the civet family, meerkats. Young ground squirrels and meerkats often play together. Ground squirrels are often kept in captivity as fun, cheerful pets.

Hyenas feed mainly on carrion. Thanks to their powerful jaws, they can easily chew even the largest bones. But they do not disdain live prey and often kill and devour even old or sick lions. Hyenas, which kill newborn cubs and other defenseless plains dwellers, especially wildebeest and gazelles, can, in fact, kill more animals than lions. It is not uncommon for hyenas to surround a female wildebeest about to calve, and no matter how hard she tries to drive them away, they snatch her baby a few minutes after it is born. But obviously, most often hyenas obtain food by eating the remains of lions' prey and the corpses of animals that have died from disease and thirst.

Hyenas often eat their victims alive. Hyena dogs do the same thing( Lucaon pictus). They hunt in packs and chase the animal until it is completely exhausted. Then they tear him to pieces in a few seconds. When hyena dogs appear in any area, all living things fall into confusion. These dogs seem like cruel beasts to us, but in fact they are interesting creatures that deserve more serious study. Hyenas search for carrion by smell at night, and look out for their prey during the day. Hyena dogs hunt only during the day, guided by sight. The same applies to cheetahs - the most intelligent hunters of the plains. They fight the animal away from the herd, moving with amazing speed, quickly catch up with it, throw it to the ground and kill it by gnawing its throat. The lion chooses large animals as its prey, while the cheetah, on the contrary, is designed by nature to hunt small herbivores, fast gazelles and impala antelopes. In some areas, cheetahs have become less common, but no one knows why.

The black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) is a close relative of wolves and dogs, somewhat inferior to them in size. The similarity with dogs has given rise to a version about the origin of some breeds of domestic dogs from the jackal. Jackals are widespread and easily adapt to any conditions: they are found in southern Eurasia, North Africa, Russia and the North Caucasus. Jackals live in burrows and lead a nocturnal gregarious lifestyle. They feed mainly on carrion and small animals. Jackals often accompany lions in the hope of profiting from the remains of their meal. Among African peoples, the jackal is a symbol of cunning, just as among the inhabitants of Europe - the fox.

Compared to other carnivores, the leopard kills fewer animals on the plains. In addition to him, the inhabitants of the plains are hunted by a whole squad of small predators - jackals, big-eared foxes, many birds, snakes like the African viper. The large African viper is able to swallow a whole strider ( Рedetes capensis). In the savannah, nothing goes to waste: if the prey is not eaten at night by four-legged carrion lovers, vultures take over it during the day. The remains of an animal killed by a lion are eaten within a few hours by jackals, hyenas and vultures.

The open, dry plains of Africa, savannas and deserts are home to the cheetah (Acionyx jubatus), the fastest-footed animal on Earth. In a rapid rush after the victim, it can reach speeds of up to 100 km/h. The cheetah is well adapted to this method of hunting: it has a dry, lean body with a small head and long slender legs, the claws of which do not retract, like other cats, and a long, strong tail acts as a balancer when running. Until recently, cheetahs were very widespread - almost throughout Africa, Western and Central Asia, in Southern Kazakhstan and Transcaucasia. Since cheetahs are easily tamed, they were trained and used for hunting in Iran and the Mughal Empire. Currently, cheetahs have survived mainly in Africa, only occasionally they are found in Iran and Afghanistan, and from the territory of Central Asia, apparently, they have completely disappeared.

Sudanese waterbuck ( Kobis megaceros) is a very isolated species; its closest relatives are found more than a thousand kilometers away, in the swamps of southern Central Africa. The elongated hooves of this goat are widely spaced and hold it well in the quagmire. Sudanese ibexes graze in large herds in wetlands where lions and cheetahs cannot reach them. Fleeing from persecution, they go into the water up to their necks. In the same place where the Sudanese goat lives, the white-eared swamp goat is found ( Kobis kob leucotis), a subspecies of the common West African swamp goat, which was long considered extirpated. The coloration of old males is noticeably different from the coloration of other representatives of the species. Those have red fur, while the white-eared goat has dark brown fur, and he, as the name suggests, has white ears. These goats are found on both banks of the Nile, while the range of the Sudanese waterbuck is limited to the left bank region of the Bahr el-Ghazal province .

In the local swamps there is one large animal - sitatunga ( Тragelaphus spekei) representative of the subfamily of antelopes Tragelaphidae. The sitatunga is related to the bushbuck and can even be hybridized with it in captivity. It, like the Sudanese waterbuck, has long, widely spaced hooves, which prevent the animal from falling through the floating carpet or getting stuck in the muddy ground. Sitatunga is a very secretive animal; during the day it stays deep in the thickets and comes out to feed only at night. Despite the relative abundance of these angelopes, very rarely have anyone been able to observe them in the wild. The swamp lifestyle allows the sitatunga to avoid predators and use food resources that are unavailable to other antelopes.

Previously, the swamps, lakes and rivers of this area were swarming with hippos, and there are still a lot of them in some places. The second largest representative of African mammals has adapted well to an aquatic lifestyle, swims freely and easily walks along the bottom of reservoirs. In clear water you can observe with what amazing ease and grace hippos move. On the ground they seem clumsy, but they can reach unexpectedly high speeds. Hippos form various herds: old males sometimes live alone. During the day, hippos, to escape the sun, usually sit in the water or in mud puddles, with only their backs exposed. Swimming underwater, they occasionally rise to the surface for air. Their eyes and nostrils, like those of some other aquatic mammals, are raised: their ears are small, etc. Having risen to the surface, the hippopotamus vigorously shakes them. Fleeing from the hunter, the hippopotamus hides in dense river thickets, only occasionally poking its eyes and nostrils out of the water. Hippos emerge quietly, without snorting. Where they are not disturbed, for example on the lakes and canals of western Uganda, they are trusting, and herds of hippopotamuses rest serenely in the shallow waters. When they see a person, they also do not move from their place.

Hippos perform two important functions, which can be defined as construction and chemical. Their large mass and physical strength allow them to clear channels in the thick of swamp vegetation. When hippos go out to graze at night, they make wide paths in reeds and papyrus, which facilitate access to water not only for other animals, but also for people. And during the day, copious feces of hippopotamuses fertilize the water, providing a breeding ground for the development of tiny blue-green algae, which in turn serve as food for fish, in particular for the bream-like tilapia ( Tilapia). So the vitality of fish populations and the smooth flow of rivers depend on the hippopotamus.

On land, no predator can measure its strength with a hippopotamus. Even lions prefer not to associate with adult animals, but sometimes they kill their cubs. Where hippos are not pursued, the herd may become too large for the habitat, resulting in reduced resistance to disease. Due to the abundance of hippopotamuses, the banks of the Kazinga Channel in the Queen Elizabeth National Park and in some places the banks of the Nile are subject to such overgrazing that erosion processes reach a large extent.

Where the main population remains healthy and is not declining due to disease, the hippopotamus herds in the Kazinga Channel and Lake Albert are regularly thinned out by shooting to minimize the damage they cause.

In some parts of the area in question, crocodiles are still numerous: these reptiles were much more numerous until they began to be exterminated in pursuit of leather. Crocodiles are probably the most dangerous predator to humans in all of Africa, but it seems that the degree of danger depends on how well they are provided with their main food. If there are plenty of fish, crocodiles rarely attack large mammals. However, in some places, crocodiles, regardless of the availability of food in the river, grab antelopes that come to drink. And they don't always differentiate between humans and large animals. So even where crocodiles are considered harmless, swimming would be foolhardy, since there can be exceptions to every rule.

Crocodiles help maintain species balance among fish. Where they are not present, predators such as catfish Clarias mossambicus. are destroying so many other fish species that it is affecting fisheries. Even crocodiles are useful by destroying predatory larvae. The complete extirpation of crocodiles in parts of Lake Victoria has caused such damage to the fishery that measures are now being taken to protect them.

Crocodiles lay their eggs in the sand on the shore, and often the females guard their clutches. A lot of eggs are laid, and young crocodiles emerge from them fully developed. However, they hatch only if the Nile monitor lizard does not come across the clutch ( Varanus niloticus). This large lizard is found along the banks of almost all the rivers of tropical Africa, and it is especially numerous on some islands of Lake Victoria. The Nile monitor lizard is a predator, but most of all it loves bird eggs and chicks, as well as crocodile eggs. He digs up the clutch and swallows one egg after another, and what he can’t handle himself, the birds - the African marabou ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus) and vultures.

The Nile monitor reaches a length of two meters. He runs fast and swims well; fleeing persecution, sometimes it hides in a crack in the rock and rests so firmly against the walls with its long claws that it takes the efforts of several people to pull it out by the tail. Caught in the open, the monitor lizard swells its body and hisses. The tail, which it beats from side to side, is a formidable weapon against small predators. The monitor lizard bites painfully, but if you lift it by the tail, it becomes helpless.

Hieroglyphic python ( Python sebae)- a huge snake reaching a length of six meters. He strangles his victim and swallows him whole. It is commonly believed that a python breaks the bones of an antelope, but this is not true. The python's jaws are adapted for swallowing large prey: their bones are not fused, but connected by ligaments that stretch beyond belief. The python does not attack people; as a rule, he tries to leave if disturbed by a person. But the strength and size of this snake are such that its bite is dangerous, so it is better not to tease the python, no matter how clumsy it may seem after a hearty meal.

In the area we are considering, herbivorous animals predominate. Of the leaf-eaters, the elephant forced itself to switch to pasture; there are not so many giraffes and black rhinoceroses, and there are no typical leaf-eaters, like kudu or impala. Horse antelopes, which inhabit the drier savanna further north, are again herbivorous animals, as are the waterbuck and marshbuck and two subspecies of the topi - Damaliscus lunatus korrigym And D.I.tiang.

The sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) belongs to the genus of equid antelopes, named for their resemblance to horses. These antelopes reach the height of a horse at the withers (height 150 cm, weight 250 kg). The impression is enhanced by the stiff, erect mane on the neck. The color of males is jet black, females are dark chestnut, the pattern on the muzzle, belly and circum-tail “mirror” are white. Black antelopes live on plains and hills covered with sparse vegetation, south of the rainforests of the Congo. These are the most courageous African antelopes: in case of danger, they often go on the attack instead of fleeing. Male sable antelopes fight each other, dropping to their knees. The record length of their saber-shaped horns is 82.5 cm. These horns are a coveted hunting trophy, because of which black antelopes have been greatly exterminated. The largest subspecies of black antelope, living in Angola, is listed in the IUCN Red List.

The giraffe (Giraffa cameliopardalis) is an inhabitant of African savannas and woodlands south of the Sahara. The seemingly surprising appearance of the giraffe (a relatively short body with enormous growth - the crown of the giraffe can be at a distance of 5.8 m from the ground) is nevertheless completely environmentally justified. Giraffes feed on plant food, which they get mainly from a height. In addition to a long neck, they are characterized by a tongue 40-45 cm long and the ability to rear up, raising their head to a height of up to 7 m. Oddly enough, the giraffe has only seven cervical vertebrae, like other mammals. Giraffes have the highest blood pressure of any mammal (3 times higher than humans). The giraffe's heart weighs 7-8 kg and is capable of pumping blood into the brain to a height of 3.5 m. To drink water, the giraffe has to spread its front legs wide apart. It seems a mystery how the giraffe does not have a cerebral hemorrhage in this position. It turns out that in the jugular vein near the brain the giraffe has a closing valve system that allows a strictly defined amount of blood to flow to the head.

White rhinoceroses must once have been found everywhere from Natal to Sudan. But even then the Nile, and possibly large African lakes, blocked their path to the east. It is likely that the northern population separated from the southern one when the equatorial forests extended much further latitudinally to the east, as they did during the pluvial eras corresponding to ice ages at higher latitudes. The northern and southern subspecies differ from each other only in some structural features of the skull and teeth. Outwardly, they are difficult to distinguish. Unlike the leaf-eating black rhinoceros, the white rhinoceros eats grass.

The white rhinoceros is the third largest land mammal in Africa. It is slightly smaller than a hippopotamus and almost twice the weight of its relative, the black rhinoceros, from which, in addition to its weight, it is also distinguished by a much more peaceful disposition. Upon closer acquaintance, the white rhinoceros looks so helpless and confused that you even want to caress this huge thick-skinned animal. He has very poor vision and can only rely on his size, horn and sense of smell.

Now there are less than a thousand white rhinoceroses on the left bank of the Nile. The river still remains an insurmountable barrier for them, so several animals were transported to Murchison National Park in addition to the large herbivores already there. The conditions for the white rhinoceros in the new place seem to be good, but since it bears offspring only once every two and a half to three years, a healthy population cannot be created quickly, and during this time it can be completely exterminated in its original range. The white rhinoceros, like other rhinoceroses, is hunted for its horn, to which the Easterners attribute stimulating properties, and, despite its size, the white rhinoceros is completely helpless against an experienced poacher armed with a rifle or poisoned arrows.

The most numerous herbivores in the south of the region include the Ugandan swamp goat ( Kobus kob thomasi). The distribution border of this subspecies of West African swamp goat reaches Kenya, but there it has already been almost exterminated. The Uganda goat is a magnificent, tightly built red antelope that gallops as well as an impala; The head of males is crowned with beautiful horns.

The marsh goat is distinguished by interesting territorial behavior, the study of which gave rise to the study of corresponding traits in other antelopes. Males gather in open areas with low grass and line up or lie down each in their own steep-shaped area, and females enter one of these areas where the owner is most active, but not necessarily the largest.

These territorial games are an amazing sight. There are many "playgrounds" in the Semliki Valley, some located near major roads. I remember the displays of wood grouse and capercaillie; Only among birds do males play games in front of females. It appears that the territorial behavior of marsh goats is determined by population density; in other words, it can only be observed where antelope are abundant. If There are few of them; each male has larger individual areas. Obviously, common “leks” are not necessary for the conservation of the swamp goat as a species. However, in some parts of its original range it is becoming extinct (the reason for this is not yet clear) and no conservation measures are helping.

One way or another, the local wild fauna, even if it does not present such a spectacular spectacle as the huge herds of various animals of the eastern grasslands, makes the Nile basin no less interesting than other areas. And huge expanses of water and swamps create a unique habitat.

In the savannas we are considering, many animals characteristic of Africa as a whole are widespread. These include the horse antelope ( Hippotragus equinus), the largest representative of the subfamily of saber-horned antelopes. A relative of the oryx and the saber-horned antelope itself, it is also found in East and Southern Africa. Let's also call the common hartebeest, or kongoni ( Alcelaphus buselaphus), which only recently disappeared from North Africa and is represented by various subspecies in savannas and grasslands as far as South Africa. There are a lot of African buffalos here ( Syncerus caffer), in size and coloration representing a cross between the large black buffalo of East Africa and Sudan and the small red buffalo of the Congo Basin forests; in the savannas of West Africa it is represented by all variants from coal-black to bright red. The swamp goat lives near bodies of water ( Kobus kob), waterbuck ( Kobus defassa) and the common reedbuck, or reedbuck ( Redipsa redipsa). Oribi is found in open savannah ( Ourebia ourebi), and in the thickets along watercourses there is a bushbuck ( Tragelaphus scriptus). There are also bush duikers ( Silvicapra) and crested, or forest ( Cephalophus).

The African or Kaffir buffalo (Synceros caffer) is one of the largest representatives of the buffalo genus of the bovid family, living in savannas and woodlands south of the Sahara. The weight of bulls can reach 900-1200 kg, and their height at the withers is 160-180 cm. The body of a buffalo is covered with sparse, almost black hair. Large horns, especially thick at the base, cover almost the entire forehead of the animal and give it a terrifying appearance. Subject to fits of causeless rage, buffaloes are considered one of the most dangerous African animals. Not every lion would risk attacking an adult buffalo. A wounded or disturbed buffalo is especially dangerous, as it has the habit of hiding in the thickets and suddenly attacking the enemy. Buffaloes are herd animals, forming aggregations of 50 to 2000 animals. They graze mainly at night and rest during the day, preferring to lie in the mud to escape insects.

Elephants in the Sudanese transition zone are not doing very well, but they can be found in the savannah. Of all the local leaf-eating animals, only they break off trees when grazing; however, elephants here are not so numerous as to cause noticeable damage to tree vegetation over large areas. Rhinoceroses have long since disappeared here, except for the eastern edge of the savannah zone. The most majestic and beautiful representative of the savannah fauna in the north is the great eland ( Taurotragus oryx derbianus). It is the largest of all antelopes; The height of the male at the withers is more than one and a half meters, the weight is over 700 kilograms, the horns reach more than a meter in length. Previously, this antelope apparently inhabited all savannas from Senegal to Sudan, but recently only a few dozen individuals remained of the western subspecies, moreover, separated by a huge distance from the range of other subspecies that inhabit quite large numbers of northern Cameroon and Sudan.

In West Africa, the fauna of the savanna is poorer in species than in South or East Africa, but it is much more diverse than the North African fauna. If we compare rainfall and food resources, we see that the savannas of West Africa can feed the same number of animals per two and a half square kilometers as the same savannas of Rhodesia or Uganda feed them. But in West Africa the population density is quite high almost everywhere and the local population has been engaged in hunting since time immemorial. Over the past half century, hunting has become especially intense, and due to the development of new lands, many previously wilderness areas have been cultivated. And if the protection of the local fauna is not established in the near future, it may disappear completely.

In the lowlands, sometimes quite swampy, topi cow antelopes graze ( Damaliscus lunatus corrigym), another subspecies of which is found in the northern savannas of West Africa and Sudan. Marshes are widespread only in some areas, but they contribute greatly to maintaining pastures in good condition. The fact is that the topi eat dry stems of old grass, which are neglected by wildebeest, zebras and kongoni. In this way, they destroy dried out plants that could otherwise cause a fire or choke out young shoots of edible plants. Swamps are particularly widespread in parts of the Rift Valley, in the vicinity of Lake Rukwa and Lake Edward, in the wet areas of the Masai and in the Mara region. They live only in open grasslands or savanna woodlands.

Of the large animals on the plains, the most abundant are blue wildebeest ( Composhaetes taurinus), then savannah, or Burchellian, zebras ( Ediis burchelli) and finally kongoni. At first glance, blue wildebeest seem to be ugly, awkward creatures, but they have some kind of charm. They dominate the herds of animals that still adorn the Serengeti plains or the Ngorongoro Crater. They graze in fairly large herds and huddle together at the slightest alarm. On the Serengeti plains, in the Ngorongoro Crater, in Nairobi National Park, they are much more numerous than other animals of the same size. But in some areas where both kongoni and zebra live, blue wildebeest are not found at all. Wildebeest calve in permanent locations, such as near the Ngorongoro Crater and the Loi-ta Plains in Kenya. The herds come here along well-trodden paths that turn into deep hollows on the mountain slopes. A few weeks after the herd reaches its destination, the females give birth to calves. The vast space is filled with nursing mothers and their babies; Mooing and snuffling is heard from all sides, and the smell of a barnyard wafts far around.

Of the smaller animals in the grasslands, the majority are Grant's and Thomson's gazelles, which feed mainly on grass, although Grant's gazelles also pluck leaves and shoots of trees and bushes. Grant's gazelle is one of the largest and most beautiful gazelles living on these plains. Everything about her is magnificent - the size, the height, and the shape of the horns. It is represented by various subspecies in the territory from southern Somalia to northern Tanzania and Uganda and is also typical of the deserts of northeastern Kenya. However, it prefers the grass-rich plains of the Mara, where up to 1,500 millimeters of rainfall a year falls. All gazelles move so gracefully that their gracefulness is proverbial, but the palm, of course, belongs to the adult male Grant's gazelle.

The population of Thomson's gazelles, which are much smaller than Grant's gazelles, used to number in the thousands. Thomson's gazelles are still one of the most numerous inhabitants in many parts of the grasslands, but they do not tolerate the desert. They are usually not found in areas where there is less than five hundred millimeters of rainfall per year, and they avoid going into the bush - dense thickets of bushes. But under favorable conditions, such as in the Serengeti, Thomson's gazelles are significantly more numerous than all other species. They and the zebra are blamed for the lack of food for livestock. But this is an obvious exaggeration. After all, twenty Thomson's gazelles, each weighing about twenty kilograms, eat no more grass than one bull.

Near water sources and in thickets; Waterbucks and impala antelopes live in the bushes along the banks of reservoirs. The waterbuck's main food is grass, and impalas, in addition to it, eat shoots of bushes. These two species of antelope, the warthog, the large harmless eland, and the African buffalo, which is found wherever it can find reliable shelter, complete the main list of animals grazing in the grasslands. Other species, such as the stenbok antelope and the oribi antelope, do not play any significant role .

Monkeys usually lead an arboreal lifestyle, but, adapting to the savannah environment, they are forced to descend to the ground. The two most common monkeys on the savannah are the extremely numerous Anubis baboon ( Pario anubis) and the common hussar monkey ( Eruthrocebus patas). Both species obtain most of their food on the ground; They climb well, but trees most often serve as their night quarters or observation post. Along the river valleys, where strips of forest remain, the gviretka ( Cercopithecus aethiops) which makes only short forays into the steppe. Baboons, as a rule, do not enjoy the affection of farmers; they are very clever at robbing fields. They also say that baboons are dangerous and can even attack a person when there are many of them, but there is hardly any real reason to believe this. There is no doubt that baboons demonstrate threat by barking loudly, but an imaginary attack on a person is in fact usually an expression of curiosity, which is mistakenly perceived as aggression. In fact, they are smart, well-organized and brave monkeys. They move in herds numbering from a dozen to more than a hundred individuals, often living near rocky hills with inaccessible caves and ledges where they can sleep. Early in the morning, baboons descend from the rocks and begin searching for food. They are mainly herbivorous animals, but they also eat insects. In addition, there are cases of baboons killing newborn antelope calves.

A small elite of large males subjugate all other members of the herd. The behavior of females, who also have a kind of hierarchy, is largely determined by their reproductive potential. Leader males from the elite approach females during the most favorable period for fertilization.

If a herd is attacked by, say, a dog or a leopard, one or more male leaders fight back, sometimes dying in battle. Powerful jaws and seven-eight-centimeter fangs make the baboon a formidable opponent, and yet alone he is powerless against the leopard. Seeing their enemy or hearing his growl at night, baboons raise a terrible cry, but although leopards are considered a natural enemy of baboons, they are unlikely to cause much damage to their herds. A large herd of baboons does not always retreat before a leopard, but a lion invariably puts them to flight.

Baboon (Papio cynocephalus) is a monkey from the genus of baboons. Baboons live in savanna forests and savannas of Central and East Africa. They are also called yellow baboons because of their light yellow coat color, or dog-headed baboons because of their elongated, dog-like snout. Although baboons are land animals, they spend more time in trees than other baboons. These are omnivores with a developed herd hierarchy, headed by a strong male.

Adult male hamadryas (Papio hamadryas) have a long silvery mane (mantle), which is why they are also called frilled baboons. Hamadryas live in savanna forests and savannahs of Africa (Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia), as well as on the Arabian Peninsula, usually near rocks. In historical times, hamadryas were also found in the Nile Valley. The ancient Egyptians dedicated them to the god of the moon and wisdom, Thoth, and mummified their corpses. Hamadryas live in large herds with a clear hierarchy based on relationships of dominance and submission. At the head of the herd is a strong adult male, strictly maintaining order. Their impressive fangs and aggressive nature make these animals very dangerous. To calm a quarrel, a stern look is often enough for the leader. Extremely curious and sociable, hamadryas use a wide variety of sounds and gestures. They lead a terrestrial lifestyle and are omnivorous. Hamadryas are often kept in zoos and used as laboratory animals.

Insects

Tsetse flies transmit the pathogens - trypanosomes - along with the blood of an infected animal. Having passed through subsequent stages of development in the salivary glands of the fly, trypanosomes then enter the blood of the next victim. Thus, a tsetse that sucks the blood of a warthog will transmit the disease to a cow or a human within a few days. Wild animals are almost or completely immune to diseases (trypanosomiasis) carried by tsetse, but humans and livestock die from them. Some domestic animals have developed partial resistance, but none have lived in Africa as long as wild animals or the tsetse itself, so they do not yet have true immunity.

The forms of trypanosomiasis carried by West African tsetse flies are highly virulent and vary from place to place. A cow that develops resistance to a disease in one area may die if it is taken to another, more than three hundred kilometers away. The tsetse threat can be eliminated by clearing areas of bush, but sometimes complete clearing is necessary, and this is usually unprofitable, because even where most of the vegetation has been cleared and wildlife has either been exterminated or displaced, small, remnant populations of tsetse often remain. One infected cow is enough for other flies, such as Stomoxys, to transmit the infection to the entire herd.

Sources

Vladimir Korachantsev. Moscow. Africa is the land of paradoxes (Green series 2001. Around the world).

Tokareva Zinaida. Republic of Cote d'Ivoire: Directory / USSR Academy of Sciences 1990.

“Angola. 25 years of independence: results and prospects.” Russian-Angolan scientific colloquium (Moscow, November 8–10, 2000) / Ross. Academician Sci. African Institute. – M., 2002.

Institute for African Studies: Directory / RAS; Rep. ed. Vasiliev A.M.; Comp. and ed. Prokopenko L.Ya. – M., 2002.

Sokolov D.G. Gabonese Republic. Directory. – M., 2002. – 150 p.: map.

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