How urban and intercity electric transport receives power. Principal design of trams Riffelalp hotel tram

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Tram(from the English tram (wagon, trolley) and way (way), the name came, according to one version, from trolleys for transporting coal in the mines of Great Britain) - a type of street rail public transport for transporting passengers along specified (fixed) routes, usually electric, used primarily in cities.

Trams arose in the first half of the 19th century (originally horse-drawn), electric - at the end of the 19th century. After the heyday, the era of which fell on the period between the world wars, the decline of trams began, but already somewhere in the 70s of the XX century, there was again a significant increase in the popularity of the tram, including for environmental reasons.

Most trams use electric traction with electricity supplied through an overhead contact network using current collectors (pantographs or rods), but there are also trams powered by a contact third rail or battery.

In addition to electric, there are horse-drawn trams, cable or cable and diesel trams. In the past, there were pneumatic, steam and gas-powered trams.

There are also suburban, intercity, sanitary, service and freight trams.

Terminology

In a context that does not require terminological clarity, the word "tram" can be called:

the crew (train) of the tram,

separate tram car,

the tram industry or tram systems (for example, "Petersburg tram"),

· set of tram facilities of a region or country (for example, “Russian tram”).

Varieties of trams

The usual tram speed ranges from 45 to 70 km/h. The average speed of communication ranges from 10-12 to 30-35 km/h. In Russia, tram systems with an average operating speed of more than 24 km / h are called "high-speed".

Characteristics of the "average" tram car operating in Russia 1 (high-floor motor four-axle 15-meter):

· Weight: 15-20 tons.

· Power: 4? 40-60 kW.

· Passenger capacity: 100-200 people.

Maximum speed: 50-75 km/h.

Freight trams

Freight trams were widespread during the heyday of intercity trams, however, they were and continue to be used in cities. There was a freight tram depot in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov and other cities.

Special trams

Freight cars, rail transporter and museum car in Tula

To ensure stable operation in tram facilities, in addition to passenger cars, there is usually a certain number of special-purpose cars.

· Freight wagons

snowplow cars

Track measuring cars (track laboratories)

· Railcars

Watering wagons

· Cars-laboratories of a contact network

· Railcars

Electric locomotives for the needs of the tram economy 2

· Cars-tractors

Vacuum car 3

Trams are primarily associated with urban transport, but intercity and suburban trams were also quite common in the past.

In Europe, the network of intercity trams in Belgium, known as the niderl, stood out. Buurtspoorwegen (literally - "local railways") or fr. Le tram vincial. The Society of Local Railways was founded on May 29, 1884, with the aim of building roads for steam trams where the construction of conventional railways was unprofitable. The first section of the local railways (between Ostend and Nieuwpoort, now part of the Coast Tram line) was opened in July 1885.

In 1925, the total length of local railways was 5,200 kilometers. In comparison, Belgium now has a total rail network of 3,518 km, with Belgium having the highest rail density in the world. After 1925, the length of local railways was constantly reduced, as intercity trams were replaced by buses. The last lines of local railways were closed in the seventies. Only the coastline has survived to this day.

1,500 km of local railway lines were electrified. On non-electrified sections, steam trams were used, they were primarily used for freight traffic, and diesel trams were used for passenger transportation. Local railway lines had a gauge of 1000 mm.

Intercity trams were also common in the Netherlands. As in Belgium, they were originally steam trams, but then steam trams were replaced by electric and diesel ones. In the Netherlands, the era of intercity trams ended on February 14, 1966.

Until 1936, it was possible to travel from Vienna to Bratislava by city tram.

Pretty old GT6 car on the Oberrheinische Eisenbahn lines

To date, intercity trams of the first generation have been preserved in Belgium (the already mentioned Coastal Tram), Austria (Wiener Lokalbahnen, a suburban line 30.4 km long), Poland (the so-called Silesian interurbans, a system linking thirteen cities with a center in Katowice), Germany (for example, Oberrheinische Eisenbahn, which operates trams between the cities of Mannheim, Heidelberg and Weinheim).

Many of Switzerland's local 1000 mm gauge railway lines operate wagons that look more like trams than conventional trains.

At the end of the 20th century, suburban trams began to appear again. Closed commuter rail lines were often converted to tram traffic. Such are the suburban lines of the Manchester tram.

In recent years, an extensive network of intercity trams has been established in the vicinity of the German city of Karlsruhe. Most of the lines of this tram are converted railway lines.

The new concept is "tram-train". In the city center, such trams are no different from ordinary ones, but outside the city they use suburban railway lines, and not the railway lines are converted to trams, but vice versa. Therefore, such trams are equipped with a dual power supply system (750 V DC for urban lines and 1500 or 3000 V DC or 15,000 AC for railways) and a railway auto-blocking system. On the railway lines themselves, the movement of ordinary trains is preserved, so trains and trams share the infrastructure.

Now, according to the “tram-train” scheme, suburban routes of the Saarbrücken tram and some parts of the system in Karlsruhe, as well as trams in Kassel, Nordhausen, Chemnitz, Zwickau and some other cities operate.

Outside of Germany, tram-train systems are not widely used. An interesting example is the Swiss city of Neuchâtel 4 . This city has and develops city and suburban trams, which demonstrate their benefits, despite the extremely small size of the city - its population is only 32 thousand inhabitants. The creation of a system of intercity trams, similar to the German one, is now underway in the Netherlands.

In our country, on the eve of 1917, a 40-kilometer ORANEL tram line was built, part of which has been preserved and is used for route No. 36. There are projects to recreate a suburban line to Peterhof. From 1949 to 1976, the Chelyabinsk-Kopeysk line operated.

International trams

Some tram lines cross not only administrative, but also state borders. As of 2007, it is possible to travel by tram from Germany (Saarbrücken) to France via the Saarbahn tram line. The route number 10 of the Basel tram 5 6 (Switzerland) enters the territory of neighboring France.

It is possible that in the future there will be more international trams in Europe. In 2006, plans were made public to extend lines 3 and 11 of the Basel tram to St. Louis in France by 2012-2014. There are also plans to extend line 8 to Weil am Rhein station in Germany. If these plans are put into practice, then one tram network will unite three states 7 .

In 2013, it is planned to revive the regular tram line between Vienna and Bratislava, which existed in 1914-1945 and was closed due to damage caused by hostilities 8 .

Specialized trams

Riffelalp hotel tram

In the past, tram lines were common, which were built specifically to serve individual infrastructure facilities. Usually such lines connected a given object (for example, a hotel, a hospital) with a railway station. Some examples:

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Cruden Bay Hotel (Cruden Bay, Aberdeenshire, Scotland) had its own tram line 9

· The Duin en Bosch hospital in Bakkum (Netherlands) had its own tram line. The line ran from the railway station in the neighboring village of Kastrikyum to the hospital. At first, horse-drawn trams were used on the line, but in 1920 the tram was electrified (the only car was converted from an old horse-drawn car from Amsterdam). In 1938 the line was closed and replaced by a bus. ten

· In 1911, the Dutch Aviation Society built a gasoline-powered tram line. This line connected Den Dolder station and Sutsberg airfield. eleven

· One of the few hotel tram lines in existence today is the Riffelalp tram in Switzerland. This line operated from 1899 to 1960. In 2001, it was restored to a state close to the original.

· In 1989, the boarding house "Beregovoy" opened its own tram line, located in the village of Molochnoye (Crimea, near Evpatoria).

· The Ahn Cave Tram line was built specifically to transport tourists to the entrance to the caves.

water tram

A water (river) tram in Russia is usually understood as a river passenger transport within the city (see river tram). However, in England in the 19th century, a tram was built that ran on rails laid along the coast along the seabed (see Daddy Long Legs).

Advantages and disadvantages

The comparative efficiency of the tram, as well as other types of transport, is determined not only by its technologically determined advantages and disadvantages, but also by the general level of development of public transport in a particular country, the attitude of municipal authorities and residents towards it, and the features of the planning structure of cities. The characteristics given below are technologically determined and cannot be universal criteria "for" or "against" the tram in certain cities and countries.

Advantages

The initial costs (when building a tram system) are lower than those needed to build a metro or monorail system, since there is no need for a complete segregation of lines (although at some sections and junctions the line may run in tunnels and overpasses, there is no need to arrange them throughout the route). However, the construction of an overground tram usually involves the reconstruction of streets and intersections, which increases the price and leads to a deterioration in traffic conditions during construction.

· With a sufficiently large passenger flow, the operation of the tram is much cheaper than the operation of the bus and trolley bus source unspecified 163 days.

· The capacity of wagons is usually higher than that of buses and trolleybuses.

· Trams, like other electric vehicles, do not pollute the air with combustion products (although the power plants that generate electricity for them can pollute the environment).

· The only type of surface urban transport that can be of variable length due to the coupling of wagons into trains during rush hour and uncoupling at other times (in the subway, the main factor is the length of the platform).

· Potentially low minimum interval (in an isolated system), for example in Krivoy Rog it is even 40 seconds with three cars, compared to the limit of 1:20 on the subway.

· Tracks are visible, so potential passengers are aware of the route.

· It can use the railway infrastructure, and in world practice both simultaneously (in small towns) and the former (like the line to Strelna).

· It is possible to inform passengers about the route of the arriving tram before any other type of street transport (route lights).

· Unlike trolleybuses, the tram is quite electrically safe for passengers when boarding and disembarking, as its body is always grounded through the wheels and rails.

· Trams provide more carrying capacity than buses or trolleybuses. The optimal loading of a bus or trolleybus line is no more than 3-4 thousand passengers per hour 12 , for a "classic" tram - up to 7 thousand passengers per hour, but under certain conditions - even more 13 .

· Although a tram car costs much more than a bus and trolleybus, trams have a longer service life. If a bus rarely lasts longer than ten years, then a tram can last 30-40 years. So, in Belgium, along with modern low-floor trams, PCC trams, produced in 1971-1974, are successfully operated. More than 200 Konstal 13N trams from 1959-1969 run in Warsaw. In Milan, 163 trams of the 1500 series, manufactured in 1928-1935, are currently in operation.

· World practice has shown that motorists actively switch to rail transport only. The introduction of high-speed bus / trolleybus systems resulted in a maximum of 5% of the flow from personal to public transport.

disadvantages

"Caution, tram rails!" - road sign for cyclists.

· The tram line in the building is much more expensive than a trolleybus line, and even more so a bus line.

· The carrying capacity of trams is lower than that of the metro: usually no more than 15,000 passengers per hour for a tram, and up to 80,000 passengers per hour in each direction for a “Soviet-type” metro (only in Moscow and St. Petersburg) 14 .

· Tram rails are dangerous for cyclists and motorcyclists who try to cross them at an acute angle.

· An improperly parked car or a traffic accident in the clearance can stop traffic on a large section of the tram line. In the event of a tram breakdown, as a rule, it is pushed into the depot or onto the reserve track by the train following it, which, as a result, leads to two units of rolling stock leaving the line at once. In some cities, there is no practice of clearing tram tracks as soon as possible in case of accidents and breakdowns, which often leads to long stoppages.

· The tram network is characterized by relatively low flexibility (which can be compensated by the branching of the network). On the contrary, the bus network is very easy to change if necessary (for example, in the case of street repairs), and when using duobuses, the trolleybus network becomes very flexible.

· The tram economy requires, though inexpensive, but regular maintenance. Unsatisfactory service leads to a deterioration in the condition of the rolling stock, discomfort for passengers, and a decrease in speeds. Restoration of a running economy is very expensive (it is often easier and cheaper to build a new tram economy).

· Laying tram lines within the city requires skillful placement of tracks and complicates the organization of traffic. If poorly designed, the allocation of valuable urban land for tram traffic may be inefficient.

· In the event of unsatisfactory track maintenance, there is a possibility of the tram derailing, which in this situation makes the tram a potentially more dangerous road user.

· Soil vibrations caused by trams can create acoustic discomfort for residents of nearby buildings and damage their foundations. To reduce vibration, regular maintenance of the track (grinding to eliminate wave-like wear) and rolling stock (turning of wheel sets) is necessary. With improved path laying technology, vibration can be minimized (often not at all).

· If the path is poorly maintained, the reverse traction current can go into the ground, the resulting “stray currents” increase the corrosion of nearby underground metal structures (cable sheaths, sewer and water pipes, reinforcement of building foundations).

Story

In the 19th century, as a result of the growth of cities and industrial enterprises, the removal of dwellings from places of employment, the growth of the mobility of urban residents, the problem of urban transport communication arose. The omnibuses that appeared were soon replaced by horse-drawn street railways (horses). The world's first horse show opened in Baltimore (USA, Maryland) in 1828. There were also attempts to bring steam-powered railways to the city streets, but the experience was generally unsuccessful and did not gain popularity. Since the use of horses was associated with many inconveniences, attempts to introduce some kind of mechanical traction on the tram did not stop. In the United States, cable traction was very popular, which has survived to this day in San Francisco as a tourist attraction.

The achievements of physics in the field of electricity, the development of electrical engineering and the inventive activity of F. A. Pirotsky in St. Petersburg and W. von Siemens in Berlin led to the creation of the first passenger electric tram line between Berlin and Lichterfeld in 1881, built by the Siemens electrical company. In 1885, as a result of the work of the American inventor L. Daft, regardless of the work of Siemens and Pirotsky, an electric tram appeared in the United States.

The electric tram turned out to be a profitable business, its rapid spread around the world began. This was also facilitated by the creation of practical current collection systems (Spraig rod current collector and Siemens yoke current collector).

In 1892, Kyiv acquired the first electric tram in the Russian Empire, and soon other Russian cities followed the example of Kyiv: in Nizhny Novgorod, a tram appeared in 1896, in Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine) in 1897, in Vitebsk, Kursk and Orel in 1898, in Kremenchug, Moscow, Kazan, Zhitomir in 1899, Yaroslavl in 1900, and in Odessa and St. .

Until the First World War, the electric tram developed rapidly, displacing the horse-tram and the few remaining omnibuses from the cities. Along with the electric tram, in some cases, pneumatic, gasoline-powered and diesel were used. Trams were also used on local suburban or intercity lines. Often, urban railways were also used for the transport of goods (including in wagons supplied directly from the railway).

After a pause caused by the war and political changes in Europe, the tram continued to develop, but at a slower pace. Now he has strong competitors - a car and, in particular, a bus. Cars became more and more popular and affordable, and buses became more and more fast and comfortable, as well as economical due to the use of the Diesel engine. In the same period of time, a trolleybus appeared. In the increased traffic, the classic tram, on the one hand, began to experience interference from vehicles, and on the other hand, it itself created significant inconvenience. Incomes of the tram companies began to fall. In response, in 1929, in the United States, the presidents of streetcar companies held a conference at which they decided to produce a series of unified, significantly improved cars, which received the name PCC. These cars, which first saw the light in 1934, set a new bar in the technical equipment, convenience and appearance of the tram, influencing the entire history of the development of the tram for many years to come.

Despite such progress in the American streetcar, in many developed countries the view of the streetcar has been established as a backward, inconvenient mode of transport that does not befit a modern city. Tram systems began to be phased out. In Paris, the last city tram line was closed in 1937. In London, the tram existed until 1952, the reason for the delay in its liquidation was the war. Tram networks were also liquidated and reduced in many large cities of the world. The tram was often replaced by a trolleybus, but trolleybus lines were also soon closed in many places, unable to compete with other road transport.

In the pre-war USSR, the tram was also viewed as a backward transport, but the inaccessibility of cars for ordinary citizens made the tram more competitive with a relatively weak street flow. In addition, even in Moscow, the first metro lines opened only in 1935, and its network was still small and uneven across the city, the production of buses and trolleybuses also remained relatively small, so until the 1950s there were practically no alternatives to the tram for passenger transportation. Where the tram was removed from the central streets and avenues, its lines were necessarily transferred to neighboring parallel less busy streets and lanes. Until the 1960s, the transportation of goods along tram lines also remained significant, but they played an especially large role during the Great Patriotic War in besieged Moscow and besieged Leningrad.

After the Second World War, the process of eliminating the tram in many countries continued. Many lines damaged by the war were not restored. On the lines that were refining their resource, the track and wagons were poorly maintained, no modernization was carried out, which, against the backdrop of the growing technical level of road transport, contributed to the formation of a negative image of the tram.

However, the tram continued to perform relatively well in Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the countries of the Soviet bloc. In the first three countries, mixed-type systems have become widespread, combining the features of trams and subways (metrotrams, premetro, etc.). However, in these countries, lines and even entire networks were closed.

Already in the 70s of the XX century, the world understood that mass motorization brings problems - smog, congestion, noise, lack of space. The extensive way of solving these problems required large capital investments and had little return. Gradually, transport policy began to be revised in favor of public transport.

By that time, there were already new solutions in the field of organizing tram traffic and technical solutions that made the tram a completely competitive mode of transport. The revival of the tram began. New tram systems were opened in Canada - in Toronto, Edmonton (1978) and Calgary (1981). By the 1990s, the process of revival of the tram in the world gained full strength. The tram systems of Paris and London, as well as other most developed cities in the world, have reopened.

Against this background, in Russia, the traditional (street) tram is still de facto regarded as an obsolete mode of transport, and in a number of cities a significant part of the systems stagnates or even collapses. Some tram facilities (in the cities of Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Voronezh, Ivanovo, Karpinsk, Grozny) ceased to exist. However, for example, in Volgograd, the so-called high-speed tram or “metrotram” (tram lines laid underground) plays an important role, in addition, it is available in the industrial areas of Stary Oskol and in Ust-Ilimsk, and in Magnitogorsk the traditional tram is steadily developing.

In Ufa, Yaroslavl and Kharkov, tram tracks have been destroyed in recent years, one of the depots in the capital of Bashkortostan has been completely demolished, and two tram depots in Kharkov have been closed at once. In Yaroslavl, more than 50% of the tracks were dismantled, more than 70% of the rolling stock was decommissioned, one tram depot was closed. source not specified 22 days

In recent years, the traditional tram system in Moscow has continued to decline, but in April 2007, the city authorities officially announced plans to create a high-speed tram system in the next 20 years from 12 lines isolated from street traffic with a total operating length of 220 km, which should be deployed in almost all districts of the city. fifteen

The high-speed tram operates in Kyiv, connecting the southwest and the city center. In Kryvyi Rih (Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk region), the high-speed tram complements the system of a conventional surface tram and combines 18 km of tracks in its economy, of which 6.9 km are in tunnels and 11 stations with modern infrastructure. 17 trains of 36 cars operate daily on two routes.

Infrastructure. Depot

Storage, repair and Maintenance rolling stock is produced in tram depots (tram parks). trams also dine at the depot. small tram depots do not have rings for turnover, but consist of one (or several) dead-end tracks that have exit to the line. Large depots consist of a large ring, many through tracks (on which the cars are settled in columns of several pieces in a line), covered repair shops and exits to the line. They try to place the depot close to the terminals of many routes (to reduce "zero flights"). If this is not possible (for example, the depot is on the line), then trams follow shortened routes, which in many cases increases the intervals between “full” routes (for example, in Novokuznetsk, depot No. 3 is on the line, and routes 2,6,8 , 9 follow shortened flights to the depot both from the city and from Baydaevka). If there are no sidings on the terminals, then the cars go to the depot and for lunch.

Maintenance points

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In terms of tram systems, as a rule, maintenance points are used at the final stops to ensure the repair and inspection of cars. As a rule, the PTO is a ditch located between the tracks for inspection and repair of undercarriage equipment, small recesses on the sides of the rails for inspecting wheeled bogies, as well as ladders for inspecting the pantograph. Such systems exist in Russia, in particular, in Tula (inactive) and in St. Petersburg in Rostov-on-Don, Novocherkassk.

Passenger infrastructure

Embarkation and disembarkation of passengers is carried out at tram stops. The device stops depends on the way the canvas is placed. Stops on their own or separate track, as a rule, are equipped with paved passenger platforms as high as a tram footboard, equipped with pedestrian crossings over tram tracks.

Stops on a combined track can also be equipped with raised above the carriageway and, possibly, fenced areas - refuges. In Russia, refuges are rarely used, most often stops are not physically distinguished, passengers wait for the tram on the sidewalk and cross the carriageway when entering / exiting the tram (drivers of trackless vehicles are required to let them pass in this case).

Stops are indicated by a sign with tram route numbers, sometimes with timetables or intervals, often they are also equipped with a waiting pavilion and benches.

A separate case are sections of tram lines laid underground. In such areas, underground stations are arranged, arranged like subway stations.

In the past, some stops (primarily on intercity and suburban lines) had small station buildings similar to railway ones. By analogy, such stops were also called tram stations.

A special place is occupied by tram and pedestrian streets, common in the centers of European cities. On this type of street, traffic is allowed only for trams, cyclists and pedestrians. This type of track arrangement contributes to increasing the transport accessibility of city centers, without damaging the environment and without expanding transport spaces.

Movement organization

Tram crossing in Evpatoria (single-track system). Basically, two opposite tracks are laid for tram traffic, but there are also single-track sections (for example, in Yekaterinburg, the line to Zelyony Ostrov has a single-track section with one siding) and even entire single-track systems with sidings (for example, in Noginsk, Evpatoria, Konotop, Antalya) or without sidings (in Volchansk, Cheryomushki).

The final turning points of the tram lines are both in the form of a ring (the most common option) and in the form of a triangle (when the car moves backwards). In some cities, for example, in Budapest, two-way trams are used that can change direction at any point, including at dead ends of the lines, where the train is turned along the cross ramp between the tracks. The advantage of this method is that there is no need to build a turning ring that occupies a large area, and also that the final stop can be arranged anywhere - this can be used when closing part of the track if necessary (for example, in the case of some kind of construction, requiring road closures).

Often, the end points of tram lines, made in the form of a ring, have several tracks, which makes it possible to overtake trains of different routes (for departure on schedule), set aside part of the cars during the daytime between peak periods, store reserve trains (in case of traffic failures and substitutions) , settling of faulty trains before evacuation to the depot, settling of trains during crew lunches. Such paths can be end-to-end or dead-end. Terminals with track development, a control room and a canteen for counselors and conductors, are called tram stations in Russia.

Track facilities

Northern tram bridge in Voronezh. It is a two-story three-story structure. The trams were used to clarify the upper tier, and the two lower tiers - the right and the left - are used for the passage of cars. The length of the bridge is 1.8 km, designed specifically for the launch of a high-speed tram in Voronezh

The arrangement and placement of the track on the tram are carried out on the basis of the requirements of compatibility with the street, with foot and car traffic, high carrying capacity and speed of communication, cost-effectiveness in construction and operation. These requirements, generally speaking, come into conflict with each other, therefore, in each individual case, a compromise solution is chosen that corresponds to local conditions.

Path placement

There are several main options for placing the tramway:

· owncanvas: the tram line runs separately from the road, for example, through a forest, a field, a separate bridge or overpass, a separate tunnel.

· detachedcanvas: the tramway runs along the road, but apart from the carriageway.

· Combinedcanvas: the canvas is not separated from the roadway and can be used by trackless vehicles. Sometimes a canvas that is physically combined is considered separate if it is administratively prohibited from entering transport other than public transport. Most often, the combined canvas is placed in the center of the street, but sometimes it is also placed along the edges, near the sidewalks.

Way device

In different cities, trams use different gauges, most often the same as conventional railways (in Russia - 1520 mm, in Western Europe - 1435 mm). Unusual for their countries are the tram tracks in Rostov-on-Don - 1435 mm, in Dresden - 1450 mm, in Leipzig - 1458 mm. There are also narrow-gauge tram lines - 1000 mm (for example, in Kaliningrad, Pyatigorsk) and 1067 mm (in Tallinn).

For a tram in different conditions, both ordinary rails of an electrically railway type, and special tram rails (grooved), with a groove and a sponge, which allow the rail to be sunk into the pavement, can be used. In Russia tram rails are made from softer steel so that curves of a smaller radius can be made from them than on the railway.

Since the advent of the tram and to this day, the classic sleeper track laying technology has been used on the tram, similar to laying the track on an electric railway. The minimum technical requirements for the arrangement and maintenance of the track are less stringent than on the railway. This is due to the lower train mass and axle load. Usually, wooden sleepers are used for laying the tram track. To reduce noise, the rails at the joints are often electrically welded. There are also modern ways of arranging the track, which make it possible to reduce noise and vibration, to exclude the destructive effect on the adjacent part of the pavement, but their cost is much higher.

There is a problem of wavy longitudinal wear of tram rails, the causes of which have not been clearly established. With strong wave-like wear, the car moving along the way shakes violently, it makes a roar, it is uncomfortable to be in it. The development of wave-like wear is stopped by regular grinding of the rails. Unfortunately, this procedure is not carried out in many tram facilities in Russia. So, in St. Petersburg, rail grinding cars have not been on the line for several years.

Crossings and arrows

Arrows on a tram are usually arranged more simply than railway ones, and according to less strict technical standards. They are not always equipped with a locking device and often have only one feather ("wit").

The arrows passed by the tram "on the wool" are usually not controlled: the tram transfers the feather, rolling on it with a wheel. The arrows installed at sidings and in reversal triangles are usually spring-loaded: the feather is pressed by a spring so that a tram coming from a single-track section goes to the right (with right-hand traffic) siding track; a tram leaving a siding presses the feather with a wheel.

The arrows passed by the tram "against the wind" require control. Initially, the arrows were controlled manually: on lines with a low load - by counselors, on tense lines - by special workers-switchmen. At some intersections, central turnout posts were created, where one operator could translate all the arrows of the intersection with the help of mechanical rods or electrical circuits. Modern Russian trams are dominated by automatic switches controlled by electric current. The normal position of such an arrow usually corresponds to a turn to the right. A so-called serial contact (slang name - “lyre”, “sled”) is installed on the contact suspension on the approach to the arrow. When the “solenoid-contact-motor-rail” circuit is closed by the switched on engine (or a special shunt), the solenoid moves the arrow to turn left; when the contact is coasted, the circuit does not close and the arrow remains in the normal position. After passing the arrow along the left branch, the tram closes the shunt installed on the contact suspension with a current collector, and the solenoid switches the arrow to the normal position.

The passage of an arrow or cross by a tram requires a noticeable decrease in speed, up to 1 km / h (regulated by the rules of tram facilities). Currently, radio-controlled turnouts and other turnout designs that do not impose restrictions on the mode of movement at the entrance to the turnout are becoming more common. sixteen

Where the alternate movement of trams is arranged to overcome narrowness over a short distance (for example, when driving along a narrow and short bridge, under an arch or overpass, on the narrowing section of the street of the historical center of the city), plexuses of tracks can be used instead of arrows. In addition, sometimes plexuses are arranged at the entrance to intersections where several directions diverge: an anti-hairy arrow is installed “in advance”, at the exit from the nearest stop, where the speed of movement is low in itself, and thus a special speed reduction can be avoided when passing arrows at the intersection.

Gates

Gates (from the English gate: gate) are the junctions of the tram and railway networks (the term "gate" itself is not official, but is used very widely). Gates are mainly used to unload the trams brought on the railway platforms onto the actual tram track (at the same time, the railway rails directly pass into the tram rails). Cranes and various types of jacking posts are used to move wagons from platforms to rails. Note that for unloading tram cars from railway and automobile platforms, unloading racks can also be used - dead ends on which the tram track is raised relative to the railway track (or road surface) to the loading height of the platform (in this case, the rails on the platform are combined with the tram rails on the overpass , and the car leaves the platform under its own power or in tow).

In tram-train systems (see below), gates are used to connect trams to the rail network. In some tram facilities, it is possible for railway cars to enter the tram network, for example, during Soviet times in Kharkov, entire trains were transported to a confectionery factory located near the gate along a section of the tram line.

In Kyiv, before the construction of its own gate, the metro used the tram-railway gate and tram tracks to transport metro cars to the Dnieper depot.

Power supply

In the early period of the development of the electric tram, the public electrical networks were not yet sufficiently developed, so almost every new tram economy included its own central power plant. Now tram facilities receive electricity from general-purpose electrical networks. Since the tram is powered by relatively low voltage direct current, it is too expensive to transmit it over long distances. Therefore, traction-lowering substations are placed along the lines, which receive high-voltage alternating current from the networks and convert it with a rectifier into direct current suitable for supply to the contact network.

The rated voltage at the output of the traction substation is 600 V, the rated voltage at the current collector of the rolling stock is 550 V. In some cities of the world, a voltage of 825 V is adopted (in the territory of the countries of the former USSR, such voltage was used only for subway cars).

In cities where the tram coexists with the trolley bus, these modes of transport, as a rule, have a common energy economy.

Air contact network

The tram is powered by direct electric current through a current collector located on the roof of the car - usually a pantograph, but in some farms drag current collectors ("arcs") and rods or half-pantographs are used. Historically, yokes were more common in Europe, and rods were more common in North America and Australia (for reasons, see the "History" section). The suspension of a contact wire on a tram is usually simpler than on a railway.

When using rods, an arrangement of air arrows, similar to trolleybus ones, is required. In some cities where rod current collection is used (for example, San Francisco), in areas where tram and trolleybus lines run together, one of the contact wires is used simultaneously by both a tram and a trolleybus.

There are special structures for crossing overhead contact networks of trams and trolleybuses. The intersection of tram lines with electrified railways is not allowed due to different voltages and suspension heights of contact networks.

Typically, rail circuits are used to divert reverse traction current. In the event of a bad track condition, the reverse traction current leaves through the ground. (“Wandering currents” accelerate the corrosion of metal underground water supply and sewerage structures, telephone networks, reinforcement of building foundations, metal and reinforced structures of bridges.)

To overcome this shortcoming, in some cities (for example, in Havana), a current collection system was used with the help of two rods (as on a trolleybus) (in fact, this turns the tram into a rail trolleybus).

contact rails

On the very first trams, a third, contact rail was used, but it was soon abandoned: when it rained, short circuits often occurred. Contact between the third rail and the current collector slide was broken due to fallen leaves and other dirt. Finally, such a system was unsafe at voltages above 100-150 V (very soon it became clear that such a voltage was insufficient).

Sometimes, primarily for aesthetic reasons, an improved version of the contact rail system was used. In such a system, two contact rails (ordinary rails were no longer used as part of the electrical network) were located in a special groove between the running rails, which eliminated the danger of electric shock for pedestrians (thus the tram will already turn out to be a "rail trolley bus" with a lower current collector). In the US, contact rails were located 45 cm below street level and 30 cm apart. Recessed contact rail systems existed in Washington DC, London, New York (Manhattan only) and Paris. However, due to the high cost of laying contact rails in all cities, with the exception of Washington and Paris, a hybrid current collection system was used - a third rail was used in the city center, and a contact network outside it.

Although classical contact rail-powered systems (pairs of contact rails) have not been preserved anywhere, there is still interest in such systems. So, during the construction of a tram in Bordeaux (opened in 2003), a modern, safe version of the system was created. In the historic city center, the tram is powered by a third rail located at street level. The third rail is divided into eight-meter sections, isolated from each other. Thanks to the electronics, only that section of the third rail, over which the tram is currently passing, is energized. However, during the operation of this system, many shortcomings were revealed, primarily related to the action of rainwater. In connection with these problems, on one of the kilometer-long sections, the third rail was replaced with a contact network (the total length of the Bordeaux tram network is 21.3 km, of which 12 km with a third rail). In addition, the system turned out to be very expensive. Building a kilometer of a tram line with a third rail costs about three times as much as a kilometer with a conventional overhead contact line.

tram car design

A tram is a self-propelled railroad car adapted for urban conditions (for example, sharp turns, small dimensions, etc.). The tram can follow both the dedicated lane and the tracks laid on the streets. Therefore, trams are equipped with turn signals, brake lights and other means of signaling typical for road transport.

The body of modern tram cars is, as a rule, an all-metal structure, and consists of a frame, a frame, a roof, external and internal skins, a floor, and doors. In terms of the body, it usually has a shape narrowed towards the ends, which ensures the free passage of curves by the car. Body elements are interconnected by welding, riveting, as well as screw and adhesive methods. 17:16. Early designs of trams made extensive use of wood, both in the frame elements and in the trim elements. Recently, plastic has been widely used in decoration.

Most tram cars currently have two-axle swivel bogies, the use of which is due to the need to smoothly fit the car into curves and ensure smooth running on straight sections at high speeds. Turning of the bogies is carried out with the help of a plate mounted on the pivot beams of the body and the bogie. According to the design of the bearing part, the bogies are divided into frame and bridge; at present, the latter are mainly used. The distance between the axles of the wheelsets in the bogie (bogie base) is usually 1900-1940 mm. 17:39.

Wheelsets perceive and transfer the load from the weight of the car and passengers, while moving, make contact with the rails, direct the movement of the car. Each wheel pair consists of an axle and two wheels pressed onto it. According to the design of the wheel center, wheelsets are distinguished with rigid and rubberized wheels; In order to reduce noise during movement, passenger cars are equipped with wheelsets with rubberized wheels. 17:44

electrical equipment

Tram motors are most often DC traction motors. Recently, electronics have appeared that make it possible to convert the direct current that feeds the tram into alternating current, which makes it possible to use alternating current motors 18 . They compare favorably with DC motors in that they practically do not require maintenance and repair ( asynchronous motors alternating current do not have quick-wearing current-supplying brushes, as well as other rubbing parts).

To transfer torque from the traction motor to the axle of the wheel pair on tram cars, a cardan-reducer transmission (mechanical gearbox and cardan shaft) is used. 17:51

Engine management system

The device for regulating the current through the TED is called the control system. Control systems (CS) are divided into the following types:

In the simplest case, the regulation of the current through the motor is carried out with the help of powerful resistances, which are connected discretely in series with the motor. This control system is of three types:

o Direct control system (NSU) - historically the first type of control system on trams. The driver, by means of a lever connected to the contacts, directly switches the resistance in the electrical circuits of the rotor and windings of the DT.

o Indirectnon-automatic rheostat-contactor control system - in this system, the driver, using a pedal or controller lever, switched low-voltage electrical signals that controlled high-voltage contactors.

o Indirectautomatic RKSU - in it, a special servomotor controls the closing and opening of the contactors. The dynamics of acceleration and deceleration is determined by a predetermined time sequence in the RCCS design. The power circuit switching unit assembled with an intermediary device is otherwise called a controller.

· Thyristor-pulse control system (TISU) - CS based on high-current thyristors, in which the required current is created not by switching resistances in the motor circuit, but by forming a time sequence of current pulses of a given frequency and duty cycle. By changing these parameters, it is possible to change the average current flowing through the TED and, consequently, to control its torque. The advantage over the RCCS is a greater efficiency, since it minimizes heat losses in the starting resistances of the power circuit, but this CS provides braking, as a rule, only electrodynamic.

· Electronic system control (transistor SU) asynchronous TED. One of the most economical in terms of power consumption and modern solutions, but quite expensive and in some cases rather capricious (for example, unstable to external influences). The active use of control programmable microcontrollers in such systems creates the risk of software errors affecting the operation of the entire system as a whole.

· Piston-type compressors are usually installed on tram cars. 17:105 Compressed air can actuate door drives, brakes and some other auxiliary mechanisms. Since the tram is always provided with a sufficiently large amount of electricity, it is also possible to abandon pneumatic drives and replace them with electric ones. This makes it possible to simplify the maintenance of the tram, but at the same time the cost of the car itself increases. According to this scheme, all UKVZ production cars were assembled, starting with KTM-5, Tatra T3 and more modern Tatras, all PTMZ cars, starting with LM-99KE, all cars manufactured by Uraltransmash.

Tram layout evolution

The first generation trams (until the 1930s) usually had only two axles. The very first trams (the turn of the 19th-20th centuries) had open areas in front and behind (sometimes called "balconies"), such an arrangement was inherited from the horse tram car and was an example of inertia of thinking - if the front platform of the horse tram had to be open (so that the coachman could drive the horses), then the open areas on the tram were an anachronism. Most of the two-axle vehicles of this period had a wooden body (although the frame of the tram, of course, was metal), and yet, by the twenties, metal was increasingly used. The era of two-axle trams basically ended after the Second World War, although in some cities of the world such trams can still be seen today (for example, in Lisbon).

Trams with two-axle bogies and articulated trams

In the 1920s and 1930s, the two-axle trams were replaced by a new type of tram - a tram with two-axle bogies. The tram rested on two bogies, each of which had two axles. From the end of the twenties, trams began to be built mainly of all-metal, and after the Second World War, the production of wooden trams was completely stopped. In addition to single-car trams, articulated trams appeared (trams with an "accordion"). Trams on bogies, both single and articulated, are still the most common types of trams. See also PCC

Low floor trams

The third generation of trams includes the so-called low-floor trams. As the name implies, their distinguishing feature is the low floor height. To achieve this goal, all electrical equipment is placed on the roof of the tram (on "classic" trams, electrical equipment can be located under the floor). The advantages of a low-floor tram are convenience for the disabled, the elderly, passengers with baby strollers, faster boarding and disembarking.

Different designs of trams. Black circles indicate driven wheelsets (with a motor), white circles are non-driven.

Low-floor trams are usually articulated, as the wheel arches severely limit the space for the axles to turn, and this leads to the need to "recruit" the car from short support and slightly longer hinged sections. The HermeLijn trams used in Belgium, for example, consist of five sections connected by "accordions". However, the floor is not low throughout the entire length of such a tram: it is necessary to raise the floor above the carts. In the most progressive designs of trams (for example, in the Variotram trams operating in Helsinki), this problem is also solved by abandoning bogies and wheel sets in general.

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Tram - a type of urban (in rare cases, suburban) passenger (in some cases, freight) transport with a maximum allowable load on the line of up to 30,000 passengers per hour, in which the wagon (train of wagons) is set in motion along the rails due to electrical energy.

At the moment, the term light rail transport (LRT) is often also applied to modern trams. Trams originated at the end of the 19th century. After the heyday, the era of which fell on the period between the world wars, the decline of trams began, but since the end of the 20th century there has been a significant increase in the popularity of the tram. The Voronezh tram was solemnly opened on May 16, 1926 - you can read about this event in detail in the History section, the classic tram was closed on April 15, 2009. The general plan of the city involves the restoration of tram traffic in all directions that existed until recently.

Tram device
Modern trams are very different from their predecessors in design, but the basic principles of the tram design, which give rise to its advantages over other modes of transport, have remained unchanged. The wiring diagram of the car is arranged approximately like this: current collector (pantograph, yoke, or rod) - traction motor control system - traction motors (TED) - rails.

The traction motor control system is designed to change the strength of the current passing through the TED - that is, to change the speed. On old cars, a direct control system was used: the driver's controller was in the cab - a round pedestal with a handle at the top. When the handle was turned (there were several fixed positions), a certain proportion of the current from the network was supplied to the traction motor. At the same time, the rest was converted into heat. Now there are no such cars left. Since the 60s, the so-called rheostat-contactor control system (RKSU) has been used. The controller split into two blocks and became more complex. Possibility of parallel and series connection traction motors(as a result, the car develops different speeds), and intermediate rheostat positions - thus, the acceleration process has become much smoother. It became possible to couple cars according to the system of many units - when all the engines and electrical circuits of the cars are controlled from one driver's station. From the 1970s to the present, pulsed control systems made on a semiconductor element base are being introduced all over the world. Current pulses are applied to the motor at a frequency of several tens of times per second. This makes it possible to achieve very high running smoothness and high energy savings. Modern trams equipped with a thyristor-pulse control system (such as the Voronezh KTM-5RM or the Tatry-T6V5 that were in Voronezh until 2003) additionally save up to 30% of electricity due to TISU.

The principles of tram braking are similar to those in railway transport. On older trams, the brakes were pneumatic. The compressor produced compressed air, and with the help of a special system of devices, its energy pressed the brake pads to the wheels - just like on the railroad. Now pneumatic brakes are used only on the cars of the St. Petersburg Tram Mechanical Plant (PTMZ). Since the 1960s, trams have been using mainly electrodynamic braking. When braking, traction motors produce a current that is converted into thermal energy by rheostats (many series-connected resistors). For braking at low speeds, when electric braking is ineffective (when the car is completely stopped), shoe brakes acting on the wheels are used.

Low-voltage circuits (for lighting, signaling and all that) are powered by electric machine converters (or motor generators - the same one that constantly buzzes on Tatra-T3 and KTM-5 cars) or from noiseless semiconductor converters (KTM-8, Tatra-T6V5 , KTM-19 and so on).

Tram management

Approximately the control process looks like this: the driver raises the pantograph (arc) and turns on the car, gradually turning the controller knob (on KTM cars), or presses the pedal (on the Tatras), the circuit is automatically assembled on the move, more and more current is supplied to the traction motors, and the car accelerates. Upon reaching the required speed, the driver sets the controller knob to zero position, the current is turned off, and the car moves by inertia. Moreover, unlike trackless transport, it can move for quite a long time (this saves a huge amount of energy). For braking, the controller is set to the braking position, the braking circuit is assembled, the TEDs are connected to the rheostats, and the car starts to slow down. When reaching a speed of about 3-5 km / h, mechanical brakes are automatically activated.

At key points in the tram network - usually in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bturnaround rings or forks - there are dispatch centers that control the operation of tram cars and their compliance with a pre-compiled schedule. Tram drivers are fined for being late and overtaking the schedule - this feature of traffic organization significantly increases the predictability for passengers. In cities with a developed tram network, where the tram is now the main passenger carrier (Samara, Saratov, Yekaterinburg, Izhevsk and others), passengers, as a rule, go to a stop from work and to work, knowing in advance the time of arrival of a passing car. The movement of trams throughout the system is monitored by a central dispatcher. In case of accidents on the lines, the dispatcher indicates detour routes using a centralized communication system, which distinguishes the tram from its closest relative, the subway.

Track and electrical facilities

In different cities, trams use different gauges, most often the same as conventional railways, as, for example, in Voronezh - 1524 mm. For a tram in different conditions, both ordinary rail type rails (only in the absence of paving) and special tram rails (grooved), with a groove and a sponge, can be used, allowing you to drown the rail in the pavement. In Russia, tram rails are made from softer steel so that curves with a smaller radius can be made from them than on the railway.

To replace the traditional - sleeper - laying of rails, a new one is increasingly being used, in which the rail is laid in a special rubber groove located in a monolithic concrete slab (in Russia this technology is called Czech). Despite the fact that such laying of the track is more expensive, the track laid in this way lasts much longer without repair, completely dampens vibration and noise from the tram line, and eliminates stray currents; moving the line laid according to modern technology is not difficult for motorists. Lines using Czech technology already exist in Rostov-on-Don, Moscow, Samara, Kursk, Yekaterinburg, Ufa and other cities.

But even without the use of special technologies, noise and vibration from the tram line can be minimized due to the correct laying of the track and its timely maintenance. The tracks must be laid on a crushed stone base, on concrete sleepers, which must then be covered with crushed stone, after which the line is asphalted or covered with concrete tiles (to absorb noise). The rail joints are welded, and the line itself is polished as necessary using a rail grinding car. Such cars were produced at the Voronezh Tram and Trolleybus Repair Plant (VRTTZ) and are available not only in Voronezh, but also in other cities of the country. The noise from the line laid in this way does not exceed the noise from diesel engine buses and trucks. Noise and vibration from a car running along a line laid according to Czech technology is 10-15% less than the noise produced by buses.

In the early period of the development of trams, the electrical networks were not yet sufficiently developed, so almost every new tram facility included its own central power plant. Now tram facilities receive electricity from general-purpose electrical networks. Since the tram is powered by relatively low voltage direct current, it is too expensive to transmit it over long distances. Therefore, traction-step-down substations are placed along the lines, which receive high-voltage alternating current from networks and convert it into direct current suitable for supply to the contact network. The rated voltage at the output of the traction substation is 600 volts, the rated voltage at the current collector of the rolling stock is 550 V.

Motorized high-floor car X with non-motorized trailer M on Revolutsii Avenue. Such trams were two-axle, in contrast to the four-axle ones currently used in Voronezh.

The tram car KTM-5 is a four-axle high-floor tram car of domestic production (UKVZ). Trams of this model were put into mass production in 1969. Since 1992, such trams have not been produced.

Modern four-axle high-floor car KTM-19 (UKVZ). Such trams now form the basis of the park in Moscow, they are actively purchased by other cities, including such cars in Rostov-on-Don, Stary Oskol, Krasnodar ...

Modern articulated low-floor tram KTM-30 manufactured by UKVZ. In the next five years, such trams should become the basis of the high-speed tram network being created in Moscow.

Other features of the organization of tram traffic

Tram traffic is distinguished by a large carrying capacity of the lines. The tram is the second largest transport capacity after the subway. Thus, a traditional tram line is capable of transporting 15,000 passengers per hour, a light rail line is capable of transporting up to 30,000 passengers per hour, and a subway line is capable of transporting up to 50,000 passengers per hour. The bus and trolleybus are twice inferior to the tram in terms of carrying capacity - for them it is only 7,000 passengers per hour.

The tram, like any other rail transport, has a greater intensity of rolling stock (PS) turnover. That is, fewer tram cars are required than buses or trolleybuses to serve the same passenger traffic. The tram has the highest coefficient of urban area use efficiency (the ratio of the number of passengers transported to the area occupied on the carriageway) among the means of surface urban transport. The tram can be used in couplets of several cars or in multi-meter articulated tram trains, which makes it possible to carry a lot of passengers by one driver. This further reduces the cost of such transportation.

It should also be noted that the tram substation has a relatively long service life. Guarantee period the service life of a car before overhaul is 20 years (unlike a trolleybus or a bus, where the service time without a CWR does not exceed 8 years), and after a CWR, the service life is extended by the same amount. So, for example, in Samara there are Tatra-T3 cars with a 40-year history. The cost of the CWR of a tram car is much lower than the cost of buying a new one and is carried out, as a rule, by TTU. This also makes it possible to easily purchase used railcars abroad (at prices 3-4 times lower than the cost of a new railcar) and use them without problems for about 20 years on the lines. The purchase of used buses is associated with large expenses for the repair of such equipment, and, as a rule, after the purchase, such a bus cannot be used for more than 6-7 years. The factor of a significantly longer service life and increased maintainability of the tram fully compensates for the high cost of acquiring a new substation. The present value of a tram substation turns out to be almost 40% lower than that of a bus.

Advantages of the tram

• The initial costs (when creating a tram system), although high, are nevertheless lower than the costs required for the construction of the metro, since there is no need for a complete isolation of the lines (although in some sections and junctions the line can run in tunnels and overpasses , but there is no need to arrange them throughout the route). However, the construction of an overground tram usually involves the reconstruction of streets and intersections, which increases the price and leads to a deterioration in traffic conditions during construction.
• With a passenger flow of more than 5,000 passengers per hour, the operation of a tram is cheaper than that of a bus and trolleybus.
• Unlike buses, trams do not pollute the air with combustion products and rubber dust from rubbing wheels on asphalt.
• Unlike trolleybuses, trams are more electrically safe and more economical.
• The tram line is isolated in a natural way by depriving it of the road surface, which is important in conditions of low driver culture. But even in conditions of a high driving culture and in the presence of a road surface, the tram line is more visible, which helps drivers keep the dedicated lane for public transport free.
• Trams fit well into the urban environment of different cities, including the environment of cities with an established historical appearance. Various overpass systems, such as the monorail and some types of light rail transport, from an architectural and urban planning point of view, are well suited only for modern cities.
• The low flexibility of the tram network (provided that it is in good condition) has a psychologically beneficial effect on the value of real estate. Property owners assume that the presence of rails guarantees the presence of a tram service, as a result, the property will be provided with transport, which entails a high price for it. According to the bureau Hass-Klau & Crampton, the value of real estate in the area of ​​tram lines increases by 5-15%.
• Trams provide more carrying capacity than buses and trolleybuses.
• Although a tram car costs much more than a bus and a trolleybus, trams have a much longer service life. If the bus rarely serves for more than ten years, then the tram can be operated for 30-40 years, and subject to regular upgrades, even at this age, the tram will meet the comfort requirements. So, in Belgium, along with modern low-floor trams, PCC, produced in 1971-1974, are successfully operated. Many of them have recently been upgraded.
• The tram can combine high-speed and non-high-speed sections within the same system, and also have the ability to bypass emergency sections, unlike the subway.
• Tram cars can be coupled into trains in a multi-unit system, saving on wages.
• A tram equipped with TISU saves up to 30% of electricity, and the tram system, which allows the use of energy recovery (return to the network when braking, when the electric motor works as an electric generator) of electricity, additionally saves up to 20% of energy.
• According to statistics, the tram is the safest mode of transport in the world.

Tram Disadvantages

• Although the tram line in the building is cheaper than the metro, it is much more expensive than the trolleybus line, and even more so the bus line.
• The carrying capacity of trams is lower than that of the metro: 15,000 passengers per hour for a tram, and up to 30,000 passengers per hour in each direction for a light metro.
• Tram rails pose a danger to careless cyclists and motorcyclists.
• An improperly parked car or a traffic accident can stop traffic on a large section of the tram line. In the event of a tram breakdown, as a rule, it is pushed into the depot or onto the reserve track by the train following it, which ultimately leads to two units of rolling stock leaving the line at once. The tram network is characterized by relatively low flexibility (which, however, can be compensated by the branching of the network, which allows avoiding obstacles). The bus network is very easy to change if necessary (for example, in the case of street repairs). When using duobuses, the trolleybus network also becomes very flexible. However, this drawback is minimized when using the tram on a separate track.
• The tram industry requires, albeit inexpensive, but constant maintenance and is very sensitive to its absence. Restoring a neglected economy is very expensive.
• Laying tram lines on the streets and roads requires skillful track placement and complicates the organization of traffic.
• The stopping distance of a tram is noticeably longer than that of a car, which makes the tram a more dangerous participant. traffic on a combined canvas. However, according to statistics, the tram is the safest type of public transport in the world, while the fixed-route taxi is the most dangerous.
• Soil vibrations caused by trams can create acoustic discomfort for the inhabitants of nearby buildings and lead to damage to their foundations. With regular maintenance of the track (grinding to eliminate wave-like wear) and rolling stock (turning of wheel sets), vibrations can be greatly reduced, and with the use of advanced track laying technologies, they can be minimized.
• If the track is poorly maintained, the reverse traction current can go into the ground. "Wandering currents" increase the corrosion of nearby underground metal structures (cable sheaths, sewer and water pipes, reinforcement of building foundations). However, with modern rail laying technology, they are reduced to a minimum.

General concepts of body movement Mechanical movement is the mutual movement of bodies in space, as a result of which there is a change in the distance between the bodies or between their individual parts. Movement is progressive and rotational. Translational motion is characterized by the movement of the body relative to the reference point. Rotational is a movement in which the body, while remaining in place, moves around its axis. The same body can be simultaneously in rotational and translational motion, for example: a car wheel, a wagon wheel pair, etc.

Velocity and acceleration The distance traveled per unit of time is called velocity. Uniform motion is one in which the body travels the same distances for any equal intervals of time. For uniform motion: where: S is the length of the path in m. (km), t is the time in sec. (hour), Ucp average speed in km/h. With uneven motion, a body moves over different distances in equal periods of time. Uneven motion can be uniformly accelerated or uniformly slowed down. Acceleration (deceleration) is the change in speed per unit time. If the speed for equal periods of time increases (decreases) by equal amounts, then the movement is called uniformly accelerated (uniformly slowed down).

Mass, force, inertia Any action of one body on another, which is the cause of the appearance of acceleration, deceleration, deformation is called force. For example, a tram can be moved from its place if a traction force is applied to the wheelset of the car. To slow it down, you need to apply braking force to the rim of the bandage. Several forces can act on the same body at the same time. A force that produces the same effect as several simultaneously acting forces is called the resultant of these forces. The phenomenon of maintaining the speed of a body in the absence of the action of other bodies on it is called inertia. It manifests itself in various cases: when a car suddenly stops, passengers lean forward, or a train that has descended a mountain can continue to move horizontally without turning on the engines, etc. The measure of the inertia of a body is its mass. Mass is determined by the amount of matter contained in the body.

Friction and lubrication Contact between bodies is accompanied by friction. Depending on the type of movement, three types of friction are distinguished: Ø rest friction; Ø sliding friction; Ø rolling friction Lubrication of the rubbing parts of individual parts and assemblies of various mechanisms reduces friction forces, and hence wear, promotes heat removal and its uniform distribution, reduces noise, etc.

General concepts A tram is a carriage driven by electric traction motors that receive energy from a contact network and is intended for passenger and freight transportation in the city along a laid rail track. Trams are divided according to their purpose into passenger, freight and special. By design, the cars are divided into motor, trailer and articulated. A tram train can be formed from two or three motor cars. In this case, the control is carried out from the cab of the lead car. Such trains are called multi-unit trains. Trailer cars do not have traction engines and cannot move independently.

At our enterprise At present, our enterprise operates tram cars manufactured by the Ust Katav Carriage Works: models 71 - 605, 71 - 608, 605 608 71 - 619, 71 - 623. This facilitates the provision of spare parts, 619 623 personnel training, maintenance and repair the cars themselves, etc. If the first cars were with contactor control, then the last ones are modern tram cars with electronic control.

Body frame The main elements of the body are the frame, frame (skeleton), roof, outer and inner skin, window frames, doors, floor. All elements of the body are load-bearing and are interconnected by welding, riveting and bolted connections. The body frame is of an all-welded design, assembled from steel closed box-shaped, channel-shaped and angle profiles. The front and rear box-section pivot beams are welded inside the frame. The body frame consists of the left and two right sidewalls, the front and rear walls and the roof. All of them are welded construction of steel profiles of different configurations. The frame is attached to the body frame. The floor is a device made of glued floor plywood impregnated with bakelite varnish, 20 mm thick. A rubber flooring with a corrugated surface is glued on top of the plywood.

The inner lining is made of fiberboard or plastic. The outer skin is made of corrugated or flat steel sheets, fixed with self-tapping screws to the body frame. The inner surface of the outer skin is covered with anti-noise mastic. Styrofoam insulation is installed between the inner and outer skins. For access to electrical cabinets, the lower part of the outer skin is equipped with hinged bulwarks. The roof of the body is made of fiberglass and is bolted or bolted to the body frame. The top of the roof is covered with a dielectric rubber mat.

Pantograph Current collector of the Pantograph type car is designed for Pantograph permanent electrical connection between the contact wire and the tram car, both when standing and when moving. The pantograph provides reliable current collection at speeds up to 100 km/h. Mounted on the roof of the car with insulators. The moving frame system consists of two upper and two lower frames. Each lower frame consists of one pipe of variable cross section, and the upper frame consists of three thin-walled pipes forming an isosceles triangle, the base of which is the upper locking hinge, and the apex is a hinge connection with the lower frame. So that the current can freely pass through the frame hinges, without causing burns and sticks in them, all hinged joints have flexible shunts. The base of the pantograph consists of two longitudinal and two transverse beams made of channel-shaped steel (height 100 mm, width 50 mm, sheet thickness 4 mm.)

The lower frames are welded to the main shafts, on which the levers of the rising springs are mounted. Lifting springs are used to raise the pantograph and provide the necessary contact pressure. The main shafts are connected to each other by two balancing rods. The skid is suspended horizontally, on independent plungers, which ensures a sufficiently large (up to 60 mm) skid movement, regardless of the frame suspension system. The skid is two-row with arched aluminum inserts, it has the ability to rotate its longitudinal axis to ensure that both rows of inserts fit completely to the contact wire. The pantograph is lowered manually from the driver's cab with a rope. To hold the lifting frame in the lowered state, there is a pantograph safety hook, consisting of a longitudinal square, on which a rack with a grip is welded. The hook is located in the center of the transverse beams of the pantograph.

To engage the hook with the crossbar, it is necessary to sharply lower the pantograph. To disengage the hook from the crossbar, slowly pull the pantograph up to the rubber stops. Under the action of the counterweight, the hook disengages, and the pantograph is raised to its working position by slowly releasing the rope. Pressure on the contact wire in the operating range: when lifting 4, 9 - 6 kgf; when lowering 6, 1 - 7, 2 kgf. The difference in skid pressure on the contact wire in the operating height range is not more than 1.1 kgf. The misalignment of the skids along the length between the carriages in the upper position is not more than 10 mm. The minimum thickness of the contact insert is 16 mm. (nom. 45 mm)

Salon, driver's cab. The interior of the body is a salon, which is divided into front and rear platforms and the middle part. The driver's cab is located on the front platform, separated from the passenger compartment by a partition with a sliding door. The driver's cab contains: q control panel; q high-voltage and low-voltage electrical equipment; q driver's seat; q fire extinguisher; q device for lowering the pantograph.

The following is performed from the control panel: q car control; q alarm; q opening and closing doors; q turning the lighting on and off; q switching on and off heating, etc.; In the cabin of the car there are one and two-seater seats for passengers, on which electric furnaces are installed for heating the cabin. Currently, trolleybus heaters (TRW) are also being installed in the amount of 2 3 pcs. to the wagon. Under the seats are sandbox bins with electric drives. Also in the cabin are vertical and horizontal handrails. A ladder is installed on the drain of the front door for climbing to the roof.

At the doors there are: q emergency door opening switches; q emergency brake button (STOP CRANE); q Demand stop button . There is a lighting line on the ceiling of the cabin. Cabin ventilation: q forced ventilation is carried out by means of 4 fans, which are installed on the left and right sides between the body skins q natural ventilation is carried out through the windows, frontal ventilation grilles and doors. Roof equipment: q q current collector, pantograph type; radio reactor; lightning arrester; high voltage cable line

In the frontal part of the body from the outside on the end part of the body, a coupling device (fork), steps, and a bumper are installed. Outside the body, on the left and right sides, marker and turning lights are installed. In the frontal part of the body on the frame, a bumper bar is installed. In the back parking lights and hitch. On the right side are doorways, steps.

Door arrangement on carriages 71 605 The carriage has three entrance single-leaf sliding type doors with individual electric drives. The door frame is made of lightweight thin-walled pipes of rectangular cross section and sheathed on the outside and inside with sheathing sheets. Thermal insulation packages are installed between the sheets. The top of the door is glazed. Opening and closing of doors is carried out by means of drives from the control panel. The door drive is installed in the passenger compartment on the frame at each door. It consists of an electric motor (modified generator G 108 G) and a two-stage worm-and-spur gearbox with a gear ratio of 10. The output shaft of the gearbox with an asterisk protrudes beyond the outer skin of the car and is connected to the door leaf through a drive chain. The chain from the inside of a door is closed by a casing.

An auxiliary sprocket is installed to ensure the wrap angle of the drive sprocket with the chain. The drive clutch nut must be adjusted and locked based on the pressure on the door leaf when closing no more than 15-20 kg. In extreme positions, the drive is switched off automatically by means of limit switches (VK 200 or DKP 3.5). The door leaf is suspended by means of brackets on a guide fixed on the car body. Each bracket has two rollers at the top and one at the bottom. The upper suspension is closed by a casing. At the bottom, two brackets with two rollers are attached to the door, which are included in the guide. The door can be adjusted both in the vertical plane with the help of nuts and locknuts of the upper suspension, and in the horizontal plane due to the grooves in the brackets. The door leaf is sealed around the perimeter with seals. To soften the impact when closing, a rubber buffer is installed on the door pillar. Door closing and opening time 2 4 s.

Faulty doors on wagons 71 605 Ø fuse blown; Ø the chain from the sprocket has flown off due to poor tension; Ø chain slack below the protective cover at a distance of more than 5 mm. ; Ø the limit switch or the switch on the control panel is faulty; Ø the door opens and closes sharply; Ø Clutch is incorrectly adjusted, the force is more than 20 kg. ; Ø the elastic coupling is broken; Ø the electric motor is faulty;

Tram car door arrangement model 71 608 K The car has 4 sliding doors. The outer doors are single-leaf, the middle doors are two-leaf with an individual drive. For climbing to the roof, a retractable ladder is located in the opening of the second door. The door frame is made of lightweight thin-walled pipes of rectangular cross section and sheathed with sheets on the outside and inside. Thermal insulation packages are installed between the sheets. The top of the door is glazed. Opening and closing of doors is carried out by means of electric drives from the control panel by pressing the corresponding toggle switches.

The control drive consists of an electric motor, a single-stage worm gear. In the extreme positions of the doors (closed and open), the electric drive is switched off automatically by means of non-contact sensors, which are installed in the over-door zone near each door. Plates are installed on the door carriage to turn on the sensors. Fastening of doors and wings is carried out through carriages, which in turn are mounted on a rigidly fixed guide to the body frame. Doors and sashes have two fixing points against extrusion. The first fixing point is at the level of the window sill through the guides, which are attached to the window sill and the door pillar of the body frame and the shaped roller, which is fixed motionless on the doors and sashes.

The second fixing point is crackers, fixed motionless on the lower steps, two pieces per door and per leaf through the lower guides welded to the frames of doors and shutters. The translational movement of doors and shutters is carried out by a rack and pinion driven by electric drives. When adjusting, it is necessary: ​​Ø to ensure uniform fit of door seals over the entire surface; Ø sizes and requirements are provided with an adjusting sleeve; Ø after fulfilling the requirements, lock the adjusting sleeve with a nut; Ø ensure a tight fit of the rollers to the guide with a screw, ensuring easy (without jamming) movement of doors and leaves along the guide and lock with a nut;

Ø the size is provided by the eccentric of the roller, after which the roller is locked with a washer; Ø when installing drives and rails, the requirements for side clearance are 0.074. . . 0, 16 according to GOST 10242 81 is provided; Ø after fulfilling the requirements, fix the rails on the doors with an eccentric roller on the leaves with the eccentric rollers of the bracket; Ø fix all eccentric units with lock washers; Ø Lubricate all friction surfaces of the upper guide and rack and pinion with a thin layer of GOST 3333 80 graphite grease.

If the doors are not tightly closed, it is necessary to adjust the switch-off of the sensor by moving the plate away from the sensor. If the door closes with a strong blow, move the plate towards the sensor. After adjustment, the gap between the sensor and the plate should be within 0. . 8 mm. If the doors do not open (open circuit, blown fuses, etc.), manual opening of the doors is provided. To do this, open the hatch above the door, turn the red handle towards you as far as it will go and open the door with your hands, as shown on the plate.

Faults in the doors of the car model 71 608 K Ø cracks in the beams; Ø steps, handrails are faulty; Ø damage to the floor, manhole covers protrude above the field by more than 8 mm; Ø leaking roof, vents; Ø defects in the glass of the driver's cab, mirrors; Ø contamination and damage to the seat upholstery; Ø violation of the inner lining; Ø Pantograph rope damaged; Ø The door drive does not work.

Description of the design of the bogie The bogie is an independent set of undercarriages assembled together and rolled under the car. When the car moves, it interacts with the rail track and carries out: transfer of the weight of the body and passengers to the axles of the wheelsets and its distribution between the wheelsets; transfer to the body from the wheelsets of traction and braking forces; the direction of the axes of the wheelsets along the rail track; fitting into curved sections of the path. Frameless wagon bogie. The conditional frame is formed by two longitudinal beams and two cases of wheel pair gearboxes. The welded longitudinal beam consists of cast steel ends and a stamped box-section steel beam. Under the ends of the beams, a rubber gasket "M" of a shaped section is laid. From the rotation of the wheel pairs, a reactive thrust is installed on each of them.

The bogie is equipped with: Ø central spring suspension Ø electromagnetic drives (solenoids) of drum and shoe brakes Ø rail brakes Ø motor beam with traction motors, Ø pivot beam. The traction motor is connected to the wheel pair reducer by a cardan shaft. With one flange, the cardan shaft is attached to the brake drum, with the other to the elastic coupling. The traction motor is attached with four bolts to the motor beam. In order to avoid spontaneous loosening, the nuts are cottered after tightening.

The welded motor beam is mounted on the longitudinal beams, one end rests on rubber shock absorbers, and the other end rests on a set of springs. Rubber shock absorbers limit the movement of the beam both in the vertical and horizontal planes, and contributes to the damping of vibrations and oscillations. When installing the engine on a trolley, the gap between the engine cover and the gearbox housing is controlled, which must be at least 5 mm. In the center of the pivot beam there is a center plate socket, on which the body rests. The rotation of the bogie when the car moves along a curved section of the track occurs around the axis of this Friday.

Specifications Ø Trolley weight 4700 kg. Ø Distance between gearbox axes – 1200 mm. Ø The distance between the edges of the internal bandages of the gearbox is 1474 + 2 mm. Ø The difference in the outer diameters of the bandages of one gearbox is no more than 1 mm. Ø The difference in the outer diameters of the bandages of the gearbox of one trolley is no more than 3 mm. Ø The difference in the outer diameters of the gearbox bandages of different bogies is no more than 3 mm. Malfunctions: Ø the nuts of fastening of the longitudinal beams of the bogie are not tightened Ø cracks, mechanical damages on the beams Ø the distance between the TD cover and the gearbox casing is less than 5 mm.

Central spring suspension The central suspension is designed to absorb (damping) vertical and horizontal loads that occur during the operation of the tram. Vertical loads arise from the weight of the body with passengers. Horizontal loads occur when the car accelerates or decelerates. The load from the body through the pivot beam is transferred to the longitudinal beams and then through the axle bearings to the axle of the wheelset. The spring suspension kit works as the load increases: 1. the joint work of springs and rubber dampers until the coils of the springs are compressed until they come into contact. 2. operation of the rubber rings until the pallet rests against the rubber lining located on the longitudinal beam. 3. joint work of rubber rings and lining.

Device Ø pivot beam; Ø outer and inner coil springs; Ø rubber shock absorber rings; Ø metal plates; Ø rubber gasket; Ø rubber buffer (extinguishes horizontal loads); Ø earring (for attaching the body and bogie to raise the car).

Malfunctions: Ø presence of cracks or deformation in metal parts (pivot beam, brackets, etc.); Ø internal or external springs have burst or have permanent deformation; Ø wear or permanent deformation of the rubber rings of shock absorbers; Ø the pallet has cracks or violation of the integrity of the pallet body; Ø residual deformation or wear of rubber buffers (shock absorbers); Ø absence or malfunction of the earring (lack of connecting fingers, cotter pins, etc.); Ø Difference in height of shock absorber sets (springs, plates with rubber rings) is not more than 3 mm.

Purpose of the wheelset Designed to receive and transmit rotational motion from the traction motor through the cardan shaft and gearbox to the wheel, which receives rotational translational motion.

Wheel pair device v Rubberized wheel 2 pcs. ; v Axle of wheelset; v Driven gear, which is pressed onto the axle of the wheelset; v Long (shroud); v Short (housing); v Axlebox units with bearings No. 3620 (roller 2-row); v Pinion assembly with bearings #32413, #7312, #32312;

Description of wheel pair design Short and long casings are bolted together with their extended part, forming a gearbox housing. The long casing has two technological holes for installing a brush grounding device and a speedometer sensor. The drive gear, assembled with bearings in a glass, is inserted into the neck of the gearbox housing.

Single-stage gearbox with Novikov gearing. The gear ratio of the gearbox is 7, 143. The upper part of the gearbox housing has a technological hole for installing a breather, which serves to remove gases produced during the operation of oil in the gearbox housing. Also in the crankcase there are 3 holes for filling and control and draining oil from the crankcase. The holes are sealed with special plugs. On the long and short casings there are cavities for installing rubber shock absorbers. These shock absorbers allow you to soften the load transmitted by the longitudinal beams from the weight of the body with passengers. The size between the inner edges of the bandage should be 1474 + 2 mm.

Wheel set malfunctions v gear bearings jammed; v jammed axle bearings; v oil leakage in the gearbox through the seal; v the oil level in the gearbox is out of specification; v wear of the tire of the rubberized wheel; v residual deformation of rubber products; v breakage (absence) of bolts, central nuts of grounding shunts; v the presence of cracks in the wheel, gear housings; v wear of the teeth of the driving and driven wheels; v the presence of flats on the tread surface of the bandage exceeding the allowable value.

Rubberized wheel The bandage is held tight against rotation. The landing of the bandage on the center is carried out in a hot state, the amount of tightness is 0.6 0.8 mm. The flange on the bandage serves to guide the wheelset along the track. The wheel itself is pressed onto the axle with an interference fit of 0.09 0.13 mm. The design of the wheel allows it to be reassembled without pressing out. Shock absorber disks (liners) are pressed before assembly, pressing three times on a press with a force of 21 23 tf. and exposure 2 3 min. Peripheral bolts are wrapped with a torque wrench of 1500 kgf * cm

The rubberized wheel accepts vertical and horizontal loads. Shock absorbers are designed to mitigate the effect of the weight of the tram on the track and absorb shocks from distortions and unevenness of the tram track. The dimensions of tires, flanges, the condition of wheel blocks, tire centers in operation, cars are strictly regulated by the PTE of the tram. v bandage thickness is allowed up to 25 mm. v flange thickness up to 8 mm, height - 11 mm.

The device of the rubberized wheel v a bandage with the wheel center and a lock ring; v hub; v rubber shock absorber 2 pcs. ; v pressure plate; v central nut with locking plates; v peripheral (coupling) bolts 8 pcs. with nuts and washers. ; v grounding shunts;

Rubberized wheel malfunctions - wear of the flange is less than 8 mm. in thickness, less than 11 mm. in height; v Band wear less than 25 mm. ; v Flatness on the tread surface of the bandage exceeding 0.3 mm on reinforced concrete sleepers and 0.6 mm on wooden sleepers; v Loosening of the central nut; v Missing 1 locking plate; v Breakage of one peripheral bolt; v Weakening of the landing of the wheel center in the body of the bandage; v Wear or natural aging of rubber shock absorbers, checked visually for cracks in the rubber through a hole in the pressure plate; v Missing or broken ground shunts (up to 25% of section allowed)

Wheel device 608 KM. 09. 24. 000 The sprung wheel is one of the elements of the traction drive of the bogie. Between the hub pos. 3 and bandage pos. 1 rubber elements pos. 6, 7. Four of them (pos. 7) with a conductive jumper. The location of the rubber elements with a conductive jumper in the bandage is marked with marks E on the wheel bandage. This is necessary for the orientation of the wheels when forming a wheel pair (rubber elements with a conductive jumper, pos. 7, should be located approximately at an angle of 45). The surfaces of the parts adjacent to the rubber elements, pos. 1, 2, 3 covered with conductive paint.

Pressure disc pos. 2 is pressed on a press with a force of at least 340 kN. Before pressing, the working surfaces are lubricated with CIATIM 201 GOST 6267 74 grease. Before assembling the wheel, rubber elements and adjacent surfaces are lubricated with silicone grease Si 15 02 TU 6 15 548 85. Plugs pos. 4 and bolts pos. 5 are locked with a Loctite 243 threadlocker from Henkel Loctite, Germany. Bolt tightening force pos. 5 90+20 Nm. After assembling the wheel, the electrical resistance between the parts pos. 1 and 3 should be no more than 5 m. Ohm. If the bandage is worn up to the control ledge B, the bandage must be replaced. The tire replacement is carried out on the wheelset without pressing the wheel off the axle.

TOPIC No. 6 Transfer of torque from the armature shaft of the traction motor to the axle of the wheelset

Cardan shaft Designed to transmit torque from the traction motor to the wheel pair reducer. On cars 71 605, 71 608, 71 619, a cardan shaft from the MAZ 500 car was used, shortened by cutting the tubular part. The cardan shaft has two flange forks, with the help of which it is attached on one side to the flange of the brake drum, on the other side to the elastic coupling mounted on the traction motor shaft. The middle part of the cardan shaft is made of a seamless steel tube, a fork is welded to one end of which, and a splined tip to the other. A steel sleeve is put on the tip at one end with slots (internal), and at the other end with a fork.

The flange yokes are connected to the inner yokes by means of two crosses, on the beams of which needle bearings are mounted. The cross beams with needle bearing housings are inserted into the lugs of the flanged and inner forks. The internal channels of the cross and the oiler press in its middle part serve to supply lubricant to each needle bearing. Needle bearing housings are pressed with covers that are attached to the forks with two bolts and a locking plate. At the end of the splined bushing there is a thread onto which a special nut with an stuffing box ring is screwed, which protects the spline connection from the penetration of dirt and dust, as well as from the leakage of grease. The spline connection is lubricated using a press greaser mounted on the sleeve. The cardan shaft is dynamically balanced with an accuracy of 100 cm.

Cardan shaft malfunctions ü Presence of flange backlash at the place of landing on the shaft of the traction motor or gearbox, making holes for the bolts of the cardan shaft flanges more than 0.5 mm. ; ü The radial clearance of the cardan joint and the circumferential play of the spline connection exceed the allowable limits set by the manufacturer (0.5 mm); ü Cracks, scuff marks, traces of longitudinal workings on the surface of the fingers of the cross are not allowed;

Purpose and device of the gearbox Single-stage gearbox with Novikov gearing. The gear ratio of the gearbox is 7, 143. Short and long casings are bolted to each other with their expanded part, forming the gearbox housing. Also in the crankcase there are 3 holes for filling and control and draining oil from the crankcase. The holes are sealed with special plugs. The long casing has two technological holes for installing a brush grounding device and a speedometer sensor. The drive gear, assembled with bearings in a glass, is inserted into the neck of the gearbox housing.

REDUCER OF THE TRAMS WITH ENGAGING OF THE NOVIKOV SYSTEM: 1 - brake drum; 2 - leading bevel gear; 3 - gearbox housing; 4 - driven gear; 5 - axle of the wheelset.

Drum Shoe Brake Designed for additional braking of the car (complete stop) after the exhaustion of the electrodynamic brake. The brake drum is mounted on the conical part of the drive gear of the gearbox and is fastened with a castellated nut to the threaded part of the drive gear.

Device § Brake drum (diameter 290 300 mm) § Brake shoes with overlays 2 pcs. Brake pads are made of steel and have a radius surface for installing brake linings. § Eccentric axle 2 pcs. designed to adjust and install the shoes on the reducer glass; § Expanding fist; § Two-arm lever; The expanding fist and the two-arm lever are designed to transfer force from the brake electromagnet (solenoid) through the brake shoes to the brake drum. § System of levers with rollers and adjusting screws; § Expanding spring returns pads.

Operating principle The drum drum brake comes into operation when the car is braked after the electrodynamic brake is depleted at a speed of 4-6 km/h. The solenoid is activated and, through the adjusting rod, turning the two-arm lever and expanding fist around its axis, thereby the force from the brake solenoid is transmitted through the lever system to the brake pads. The brake pads are tightened over the surface of the brake drum, thereby there is additional braking and a complete stop of the car.

Faults: § Wear of brake pads (not less than 3 mm is allowed); § In the disinhibited state, the gap between the lining of the shoe and the surface of the drum is less or more than 0.4 0.6 mm; § Ingress of oil on the surface of the drum; § Inadmissible backlashes in the lever system and in the eccentric block attachment point; § Faulty drive of the drum-shoe brake; § The gap is not adjusted;

Electromagnetic drive (solenoid) drum-shoe brake Designed to drive the drum-shoe brake. Each brake has its own drive, they are installed on the platform of the longitudinal beam.

Solenoid (brake electromagnet) 1 block; 2 drum; 3, 5, 43 lever; 4 expanding fist; 6 movable core; 7, 10, 13 cover; 8 box; 9 solenoid valve; 11 diamagnetic gasket; 12 limit switch; 14 glass; 15 anchor; 16 coil; 36, 45 washer; 17 building; 18 traction coil; 19 thrust; 20 adjusting rod; 21, 44 axis; 22 lever; 23 protective sleeve; 24 fixed core (flange); 25 coil output; 26 adjusting screw; 27, 3134 spring; 28, 30 gasket; 29 adjusting ring; 32 lock spring; 33 - adjusting screw; 35 key; 36, 45 washer; 37 spherical nut; 38, 40 screw; 39 nut;

Device The brake solenoid consists of the following parts: body (pos. 26) cover (pos. 15) traction coil TMM (pos. 28) holding PTO coil (pos. 23) core (pos. 25), on which fixed anchor (pos. 19) § spring (pos. 20) § limit switch (pos. 16) § manual release screw (pos. 18), etc.

The brake solenoid has four operating modes: driving, service brake, emergency brake and transport. Driving mode When starting a tram car, 24 volts are applied to the traction and holding coils. As a result, the armature is attracted to the holding electromagnet and keeps the spring compressed. This releases the limit switch and removes the voltage from the traction coil. The brake spring is held by the PTO coil during the entire driving mode. On the control panel in the driver's cab, the solenoid signal lamp goes out, which corresponds to "disengaged".

Brake service mode Service braking at a speed not exceeding 4 6 km. / hour is produced by turning on the traction coil for a voltage of 7.8 volts, that is, magnetization occurs and the holding electromagnet is turned off. The traction coil at this time is fed through resistance, due to which the force on the movable core is equal to half the force of the spring. The brake solenoid generates a force of 40-60 kg. at the position of the driver controller T 4. After the car is stopped, the traction coils T 4 are de-energized, and the solenoid spring holds the car and serves as a parking brake (when the driver controller returns from T 4 to 0. T 4

Brake emergency mode For emergency braking, voltage is removed from both the holding and traction coils, thereby ensuring fast braking of the car. Emergency braking is carried out: when the PB is released, when the stop valve is released, in the absence of current from the battery. Transport mode When transporting a faulty wagon by another wagon, it is necessary to release the solenoids with the manual release screw.

Malfunctions: The car does not brake: q 24 V voltage is not supplied to the traction and holding coils, q the fuses for the power supply of the TMM and PTO circuits have burned out, q mechanical failure of the lever device of the drum-shoe brake, q the solenoid limit switch is faulty, q the presence of cracks on the electromagnet cover, q Incorrect adjustment of the electromagnet and drum-type brake, q Faulty fastening of the solenoid on the platform of the longitudinal beam.

Rail brake (RT) TRM 5 G emergencies(running into people or other obstacles). The braking force is generated by friction of the RT surface against the rail head. The attraction force of each brake is 5 tons (20 tons total).

Device Brackets (2 pcs) are attached to the longitudinal beam of the bogie, on which the rail brake is suspended through tension or compression springs. The RT is powered by battery (+24 V). RT is an electromagnet with an electric winding and a core. To limit the movement of the RT in the horizontal plane, restrictive brackets are installed.

Malfunctions Ø breakage of suspension springs or their permanent deformation; Ø The gap between the rail brake surface and the rail head is greater than 8-12mm. ; Ø misalignment of the rail brake with respect to the rail (non-parallelism); Ø blown fuse in the RT circuit; Ø lack of contact in the positive or negative wires of the RT.

On cars 71 605 Opening and closing of doors is carried out using drives from the control panel. The door drive is installed in the passenger compartment on the frame at each door. It consists of an electric motor (modified generator G 108 G) and a two-stage worm-and-spur gearbox with a gear ratio of 10. The output shaft of the gearbox with an asterisk protrudes beyond the outer skin of the car and is connected to the door leaf through a drive chain. The chain from the inside of a door is closed by a casing. An auxiliary sprocket is installed to ensure the wrap angle of the drive sprocket with the chain. The drive clutch nut must be adjusted and locked based on the pressure on the door leaf when closing no more than 15-20 kg. In extreme positions, the drive is switched off automatically by means of limit switches (VK 200 or DKP 3.5).

PD 605 The door drive PD 605 is based on the valve torque motor DVM 100. It does not have a gearbox and directly transmits rotation to the door chain of the tram car 71 605. In addition to the motor, a latch mechanism is installed in the body, which prevents the door from opening spontaneously on the go and in a de-energized state . Emergency opening provided. The door drive PD 605 works in combination with the control unit BUD 605 M. The unit has a programmable closing of the door to close at a reduced speed, which eliminates the impact on the door porch. The drive automatically determines the end positions of the door without limit switches.

The door drive PD 605 is installed instead of the standard drive and is fixed to the floor of the tram with four bolts M 10. Installation of any additional structural elements is not required. Electrically, the PD 605 drive is connected to standard wires. In addition to the PD 605 drive, one power wire with a voltage of +27 V must be connected from the emergency door opening toggle switch. At the moment, PD 605 is installed on car No. 101. Rated voltage, V 24 Rated current, A 10 Door closing time, s 3 Weight, kg 9

On cars 71 608 The control drive consists of an electric motor, a single-stage worm-and-spur gearbox. In the extreme positions of the doors (closed and open), the electric drive is switched off automatically by means of non-contact sensors, which are installed in the over-door zone near each door. Plates are installed on the door carriage to turn on the sensors. Fastening of doors and wings is carried out through carriages, which in turn are mounted on a rigidly fixed guide to the body frame.

Doors and sashes have two fixing points against extrusion. The first fixing point is at the level of the window sill through the guides, which are attached to the window sill and the door pillar of the body frame and the shaped roller, which is fixed motionless on the doors and sashes. The second fixing point is crackers, fixed motionless on the lower steps, two pieces per door and per leaf through the lower guides welded to the frames of doors and shutters. The translational movement of doors and leaves is carried out by a gear rack and pinion, driven by electric drives.

PD 608 The door drive PD 608 is based on the torque valve motor DVM 100. It does not have a gearbox and directly transmits rotation to the gear rack of the tram car door 71 608. condition. Emergency opening provided. The PD 608 door drive works in combination with the BUD 608 M control unit. The unit has a programmable closing door closing at a reduced speed, which eliminates the impact of the leaves in the extreme positions. The drive automatically determines the end positions of the door without limit switches.

The door drive PD 608 is installed instead of the regular drive and fastened to the platform with three M 10 bolts. No additional structural elements are required to be installed. Electrically, the PD 608 drive is connected to standard wires. In addition to the PD 608 drive, one power wire with a voltage of +27 V must be connected from the emergency door opening toggle switch. At the moment, PD 608 is installed on car No. 118. Rated voltage, V 24 Rated current, A 10 Door closing time, s 3 Weight, kg 6, 5

Sandbox Designed for adding dry sand to the rail head under the right wheels of the front and left wheels of the rear bogie. Adding sand provides increased adhesion of the wheel to the rail head, which prevents slipping and skidding of the car. Sandboxes are installed in the passenger compartment and located under the passenger seats on the front and rear of the cabin. The sandbox works: when you press the sandbox pedal; in case of failure of the stop crane; during emergency braking (TR); when pedal is released (PB)

Consists Foundation; Bunker for storage of dry sand; Electromagnet, designed to open and close the valve; Valve; Lever system for transferring force from the electromagnet to the valve; Rubber sleeve for guiding and supplying sand to the rail head; Heating element TEN 60 for heating dry sand.

Faults sand is not fed to the rail head; (reason: the sleeve is clogged with mud, snow or ice). defective solenoid (valve does not open or close) lack of sand in the bunker due to its leakage through an unadjusted valve; the bunker is filled with sand or sand is spilled past; raw sand; fuses blown; valve not adjusted correctly.

Wiper Power supply for the wiper motor 24 V. The power of the wiper motor is 15 W, the number of double wiper strokes is 33 per minute. The windshield wiper is switched on by the switch "WIPER".

Coupling devices are designed Coupling devices are used to connect cars according to the system of many units, as well as to tow a broken car to another. On modern cars, automatic coupling devices have become widespread. Coupling devices are attached to the frame from both ends of the car with the help of hinges. They rest on a support spring. When the car is operating “alone”, the coupling rod must be pressed against the spring using a special lock.

It consists of a rod, a bracket with rubber shock absorbers, a roller with a nut, a head with an automatic clutch mechanism, a handle, a spring. The head is given a shape that allows it to be coupled with a similar head of the coupler of another car. The coupling is carried out by two pins, which, under the force of the springs, are inserted into holes with replaceable bushings. In addition, forks are installed on the ends of the car, designed to tow a faulty car using a spare hitch.

The procedure for coupling cars with standard couplers (automatic coupler) The car uses automatic couplers designed to work on a system of many units and to tow one car of others. Coupling of wagons with standard couplers can only be carried out on a straight and horizontal section of the track in the following sequence: serviceable wagon move to the faulty one at a distance of about 2 m; insert the detachable handle into the grooves of the automatic coupling lever and check the ease of movement of the pin shaft. After checking, lower the automatic coupling lever. Check to make on both coupling devices;

release the coupling devices from the fixing brackets and set them in a straight position along the axis of the car against each other. Coupling devices can be adjusted in height with a screw under them, which is also rotated using a removable handle; after making sure that the rods of the automatic couplers are in the correct position, the coupler leaves the danger zone and gives a signal to the driver of a serviceable car to approach; the driver, moving at the shunting position of the controller with the BRAKE button pressed, connects the automatic couplers of both cars; the coupler visually checks the reliability of the automatic couplers, i.e., the depth of entry of both pin rollers along the control groove, which should be at the level of the end of the plug (the levers of the automatic couplers must be in the lower position);

surge pricing is performed by turning the automatic coupler levers to the upper position using a removable handle. Attention! Coupling of wagons on curves and slopes must be done only with additional coupling devices! Semi-automatic wagon coupler 71 619 K.

Coupling and uncoupling of wagons using folding semi-automatic couplers. Cars 71 623 use folding semi-automatic couplers designed to connect cars to a train using a multi-unit system, as well as towing the same type of faulty cars. To access the hitch, you need to remove the lower part of the front or rear body trim, which is attached to the frame with four Phillips head screws. When folded, the hitch is fixed with a pin and a latch. Before coupling the wagons, it is necessary to fix the coupler in the unfolded state using a pin with a clamp. It is possible to couple wagons with semi-automatic couplers only on straight sections of the track.

Coupling of cars is carried out in the following sequence: bring the serviceable car to the faulty car at a distance of about 2 meters; check the ease of movement of the pin roller on the coupling devices of both cars. To do this, insert the removable handle attached to the car one by one into the grooves of the automatic coupler levers and lift the levers up. After checking, lower both levers down to the stop: release the coupling devices of both cars from the fixing brackets and set them in a straight position towards the other. If necessary, the position of the hitch in height can be adjusted by turning the screw located under the hitch using the removable handle; after making sure that the couplers are in the correct mutual position, the driver of a serviceable car must, at the 1st running position of the controller, lightly collide the couplers:

before towing, check the reliability of the connection of the automatic couplers, i.e., the depth of entry of the pin shafts on both couplers along the control grooves on them; after the coupling process is completed, unbrake the faulty wagon and proceed with its towing. Uncoupling of wagons is carried out in the following sequence: brake the faulty wagon with a shoe brake, if there is a slope, put a wheel chock; using a removable handle, raise the levers of the automatic couplers on both cars to the upper fixed position; take the serviceable wagon from the faulty one; return the automatic coupler levers on both cars to the lower position, fold and secure the automatic couplers.

Car body model 71 619 The car body frame is assembled from steel straight and bent profiles of various cross sections, interconnected by welding. The outer skin of the body is made of steel sheet welded to the frame, the inner side of the sheets is covered with anti-noise material. The roof lining is made of fiberglass. The racks of the body frame allow the installation of composters in the cabin. The inner lining of the walls and ceiling is made of plastic and fiberglass, the joints of which are covered with aluminum and plastic glazing beads. The walls and ceiling are thermally insulated between the inner and outer skins.

The floor of the car is assembled from plywood boards and covered with non-slip wear-resistant material, raised at the walls by 90 mm. For access to the undercarriage equipment, hatches closed with lids are provided in the floor. The cab contains control, signaling and control devices, a driver's seat, a cabinet with electrical equipment, a device for lowering the pantograph, a fire extinguisher, a cab heating heater, an interior viewing mirror, cab lighting lamps, a ventilation unit and an anti-solar device. To announce stops, the cabin is equipped with a transport loud-speaking device (TGU). The driver's seat meets the high requirements of workplace ergonomics. It has adjustments in the longitudinal and vertical direction of the pillows, the angle of the backrest. The stepless mechanical suspension is manually adjustable according to the weight of the driver in the range from 50 to 130 kg.

There are 30 seats in the passenger compartment of the car. For standing passengers, the cabin is equipped with horizontal and vertical handrails and railings. To illuminate the interior at night, two lighting lines are installed on the ceiling, located in two rows. Four TSU speakers are built into the lighting lines. Above each door there are 4 red buttons "Emergency door opening" and 4 red buttons "Emergency manual door opening". Also in the cabin installed 3 - stop crane. Four "Call" buttons, for giving a signal to the driver, are installed in the right upper casings near each door.

Doors on cars of model 71 619 The car is equipped with four internally pivoting doors. Doors 1 and 4 are single doors, doors 2 and 3 are double doors. Door leafs are made of fiberglass reinforced with metal inserts. The upper part of the door is glazed by gluing. Special rubber and aluminum profiles are used to seal the doors.

The main bearing element of the door suspension are risers pos. 1 with levers attached to them, fixed lower and movable upper pos. 2. Shanks of rotating joints pos. 3, which are rigidly connected to the door and transmit rotation to it from the riser. A bracket pos. 4 with bearing pos. 5, which, moving along the U - shaped guide pos. 6 informs the door of the given trajectory of movement. A bracket with a height-adjustable pin is installed on the lower edge of the door, which stabilizes the closed door under pressure from the inside and outside of the car. The lower end of the riser is installed in a support mounted at the level of the car floor. The upper one is installed in the centering bearing and is connected to the output shaft of the gear motor pos. 7 by means of levers pos. 8, rods pos. 9 and couplings pos. ten.

The door drive consists of a gear motor, drive control unit pos. 12 and limit switch pos. 13. Motor reducer is used to open and close doors. The control unit processes the signals from the motor reducer and limit switch. The limit switch gives a command to stop the door when closing and works in tandem with the bar pos. 14, mounted on a two-arm lever (rocker arm) of the drive pos. eleven.

13 4 14 5 6 7 12 15 11 9 1 0 3 8 2 1 Door suspension and door operator , 8 - lever, 9 - rod, 10 - clutch, 11 - two-arm lever, 12 - drive control unit, 13 - limit switch, 14 - bar, 15 - lever.

Thus, if the door does not close properly, it is necessary to open the over-door casing and check the fastening of the bar. The door operation program provides for the rollback of the door in the event of a collision with an obstacle when closing or opening. The rods that transmit rotation from the gear motor to the riser are designed in such a way that when the doors are closed, the axis of the rod located on the two-arm lever passes the “dead center” relative to the gear motor axis. This guarantees secure locking of the doors. All doors are equipped with the "Emergency door opening" button, when pressed, the doors open automatically from the drive. In the event of an emergency and the need to open the doors manually, it is necessary to bring the two-arm lever out of the “dead center” using a special lever pos. 15, fixed on the rocker pos. eleven.

The lever is directly actuated by a pusher button mounted on the door casing. The button must be pressed all the way (approximately 40 mm), after which the door can be opened manually. When the doors are closed, the emergency manual door opening mechanism automatically returns to its original position. Emergency manual opening buttons are labeled accordingly.

Adjustment and adjustment of the doors must be made, observing the following conditions: 1. The output shaft of the gear motor must be located at an equal distance from the door risers in the middle openings and at the same distance (660 mm) from the riser in the front and rear openings, as well as on a distance of 110 mm from the inner surface of the metal structures of the sidewall of the car. 2. The levers on the door risers must be installed in such a way that, with the doors closed, they are directed towards the drive at an angle of at least 300, while the distance from the axis of the conical hole in the lever to the sidewall must be 110 ... 120 mm.

After these conditions are met, the two-arm lever should be installed on the output shaft of the gearbox parallel to the longitudinal axis of the car and connected to the levers by means of rods (it should be noted that the rods pos. 9 have a left-hand thread, as well as one of the threaded holes of the coupling is made with a left-hand thread ). With the help of couplings pos. 10 Tighten the tie rods until the doors are in full contact with the opening seals. After tightening the couplings, it is necessary to additionally check the size of 110 ... 120 mm, and if it decreases, release the lever and turn it on the riser by one slot in the direction of opening the door. This setting allows you to minimize the load on the rods, especially high at the initial moment of opening, when the levers leave the dead center (of the two door drive rods, in the most favorable conditions, the rod located on the side of the sidewall relative to the drive works).

Limit switch pos. 13, working in tandem with the strap pos. 14, should be installed in the center of the bar with the doors closed. The gap from the bar to the limit switch should be 2 ... 6 mm. If the bar is installed correctly, and the drive and door levers are adjusted in accordance with paragraphs 1 and 2, then when closing the doors, the bent rods pos. 9 smoothly cross the "dead spot" and without a hit enter the "lock" with each other. On the front and back door the role of the body of the second thrust is played by an emphasis installed in the free shoulder of the rocker arm. Adjustment and adjustment of the doors should be carried out with the drive power off. Before turning on the power, you must manually close the door completely and move the rocker to the end position, in which the bar will be directly below the limit switch.

In this position, when the power is turned on, the end position sensor is activated and further opening of the door is possible at any angle up to the maximum set by the adjustment. Adjustment of the maximum door opening angle is carried out by selecting the adjusting resistor on the board of the BUD 4 control unit and is carried out by the manufacturer (JSC UETK "Kanopus") or its representatives. If the door was not completely closed when the power was turned on and, accordingly, the door end position sensor did not work, then opening the door from this position is impossible.

It is only possible to close the door and then (if the sensor does not work) open to the position of the door when the power is turned on. If the door was completely closed when closing and the end position sensor was triggered, then the door can be opened to any angle up to the maximum set by the adjustment. Thus, in the event of a malfunction in the operation of the doors, a sudden power failure, etc., after turning on the power, the “Close” command has priority, i.e. the doors should first be closed before the limit switch is triggered and the corresponding signal appears on the driver’s console. Then the doors are ready to go.

Model 71 623 car body The car body with an all-welded load-bearing frame, made of hollow elements of square and rectangular pipes, as well as special bent profiles, one-sided layout with four swivel-type doors on the starboard side. Two middle doors are double-leaf 1200 mm wide, outer single-leaf doors 720 mm wide. The floor of the car in the cabin is variable, in the extreme parts of the body it has a height of 760 mm above the level of the rail head, in the middle part it is 370 mm. The transition from the high floor to the low floor is realized in the form of two steps. The cabin has 30 seats. The total capacity reaches 186 people with a nominal load of 5 people / m2.

Lighting is provided by two light lines with fluorescent lamps. Forced ventilation is carried out through holes in the roof of the car, natural ventilation through the windows and open doors. Heating is provided by electric furnaces located along the side walls.

Brakes The car is equipped with electrodynamic regenerative rheostatic, mechanical disk and electromagnetic rail brakes. The mechanical disc brake has a rack and pinion drive. The electrical equipment of the car provides service electrodynamic regenerative braking from top speed to zero, with automatic transition to rheostatic braking and back when the voltage in the contact network exceeds more than 720 V, automatic protection against accelerating slipping on track sections with degraded conditions for adhesion of wheels to rails.

Other The tram car is equipped with a radio broadcasting installation, sound and light alarms, protection against radio interference and lightning, as well as sockets for inter-car connections, sandboxes and a mechanical coupling. An information system is installed on the car, consisting of four information boards (in front, behind, on the starboard side at the front door and in the cabin) and an autoinformer, the Internet. The information system is controlled centrally from the driver's cab.

Tram - this is a carriage set in motion by electric motors that receive energy from the contact network and is intended for passenger and freight transportation along the rail track.

It's called a tram train. formed from three, two or one tram cars, having the necessary signals and indicators and serviced by a train crew.

By purpose, trams are divided for passenger, freight, special. Passenger cars have a lounge to accommodate passengers.

By design, the wagons are divided for motorized, trailed and articulated.

Motor cars equipped with traction motors that convert electricity into mechanical energy of the movement of the car (train). A tram train can be formed from two or three motor cars operating according to the system of many units, while the control is carried out from the cab of the head car. The use of such trains makes it possible to significantly increase the volume of passenger traffic with the same number of trains and drivers, while maintaining the same speeds as when using single cars. In a number of cases, it is advantageous to release railcars on the line according to the system of many units only during peak hours.

trailer wagons do not have traction motors and cannot move independently. They work in tandem with motor.

Articulated tram cars have articulated head and trailer parts with a common cabin and a bridge. These wagons have a large carrying capacity.

For urban passenger traffic, two-axle motor cars of Czechoslovak production are used - wagon T-3.

Basic technical data of the T-3 car.

The length of the car on the couplers - 15 104 mm

Carriage height 3060 mm

Wagon width - 2,500 mm

Wagon weight - 17 tons

Wagon speed - 65 km / h

Capacity - 115 people

The electrical equipment of a tram car is divided into high-voltage and low-voltage.

Used in tram cars systems of direct and indirect control.

With a direct control system the driver, using a high-voltage device (controller), manually turns on the current supplied to the traction motors. Such a system is simple, but controllers designed for traction motor currents are bulky, inconvenient to operate, and unsafe for the driver, since they operate under high voltage and do not provide smooth starting and braking of the car.

With a direct control system, the power circuit includes a current collector, a lightning arrester, an automatic switch, a controller, starting rheostats, and traction motors.

With an indirect control system the driver, using the controller, controls the devices that include traction motors. This makes it possible to automate the process of starting or braking the car, making it smooth, and eliminating shocks associated with driver errors in control methods. However, this system is more complex and requires more skilled operation.

With an indirect control system, the power circuit includes a current collector, a lightning arrester, an automatic switch or an overcurrent relay, contactors and relays, a group rheostat controller or an accelerator, rheostats, inductive shunts, and traction motors. The car has an automatic indirect control system.

The car has power circuits, control circuits and auxiliary circuits (high-voltage and low-voltage). Power circuits are traction motor circuits. Control circuits are used to drive power circuit devices, braking equipment and a number of auxiliary circuits.

The control circuit diagram contains: a driver controller, low-voltage windings of power circuit devices, various relays, an accelerator electric motor, electromagnets for drum brake drives, and rail brake electromagnets. The sources of current for all low-voltage circuits are the battery and the low-voltage generator of the engine-generator.

Driver's cab. All control devices of the car are concentrated in the cabin. On fig. 1 shows the location of the equipment in the cabs of T-3 cars.

Rice. 1. The driver's cab of the T-3 car:

1 - battery switch on the rear wall of the cab, 2 - sound amplifier.1b. microphone. 4 - switches and buttons, 5 - signal lamps. 6 - button "Drive of the washing machine", 7 - air duct for front windows, 8 - ammeter, 9 - speedometer, 10-voltmeter, 11 - lamp "Mains voltage", 12 - lamp "Maximum relay". 13 - “Train break”, 14 - control circuit switch, 15 - interior lighting switch, 16 - heater fan damper rod, 17 - heating circuit shutdown button 18 - sandbox handle. 19 - heater switch, 20 - reversing switch handle, 21 - passenger compartment heating switch, 22 - heater damper lever, 23 safety pedal, 24 - brake pedal, 25 - starting pedal, 26 - fuse box, thermal relay, turn relay, buzzer, automatic heater switch, 27 - driver's seat

Location of electrical equipment on the T-3 car

On fig. 2 shows the location of electrical equipment on the T-3 car

On the roof of the car there is a current collector (Fig. 18) and a lightning arrester. Inside the car there are: the driver’s console, high and low voltage fuse boxes, relays and door mechanism motors, a controller with pedals - starting, brake, and also a safety pedal separately from the controller, heating elements (under the seats in the passenger compartment), thermal switch switches and direction indicators, reversing switch, instrumentation - ammeter, voltmeter and speedometer, switches, switches and warning lights on the driver's console.

1 - headlights; 2 - arrow circuit relay; 3 - turn signal relay; 4 - box with fuses; 5 - additional shield with fuses; 6, 12 - door mechanism drive; 7, 13 - door mechanism relay; 8 - current collector; 9 - lightning arrester; 10 – ammeter shunt; 11 - ovens under the seats; 14 - rear signal lights; 15 - a box of a battery switch; 16 - battery; 17 - arrow resistors and damper rheostats; 18 – electromagnetic drum brake drive; 19 - rail brakes; 20, 21 - clamping boxes; 22 - traction motors; 23 - accelerator; 24 - engine-generator; 25 - fuses of the arrow and high-voltage auxiliary circuits; 26 - box of contactor panel No. 1; 27 - box of contactor panel No. 2; 28 - box of contactor panel No. 3; 29 – line contactor box; 30 - side signal lights; 31 - inductive shunts; 32 - reversing switch; 33 - heater; 34 - safety pedal; 35 - controller; 36 - inter-car plug connection; 37 - driver's console

On the outer side of the body are located: turn signal indicators, side light signals, brake lights, headlights, plug contacts of inter-car connections.

Under the car body there are: an accelerator, an engine-generator, starting damper rheostats and switch circuit resistors, inductive shunts, contactor panels: 1st, 2nd and 3rd, a line contactor with an overcurrent relay, a battery box, a battery disconnector batteries and fuses of the low-voltage circuit (common and accelerator engine), common and arrow circuits (high-voltage auxiliary circuits).

Traction motors, terminal boxes for connecting wires of traction motors and for connecting wires of shoe brake drives and rail brake electromagnets, as well as wires for signaling the operation of brakes, are located on the trolleys. In addition, in the driver's cab there is a battery disconnector and fuses connected in series with the fuses located at the battery disconnector under the car body.

On the ceiling of the cabin there is equipment for fluorescent interior lighting, powered by the voltage of the contact network, and at the doors of the cabin there is an emergency braking button, covered with glass from accidental pressing.

A tram car consists of one or two bogies on which a frame stands or on which the body rests. The development of world technology is in the direction of the integration of parts (as in biostructures), so a simple beam frame is becoming a thing of the past, giving way to complex frame structures.

The main elements of the tram are: Ivanov M.D., Alpatkin A.P., Ieropolsky B.K. The device and operation of the tram. - M.: Higher School, 1977. - 273 p.

electrical equipment (placed, if possible, higher, as moisture condenses on it);

pantograph (farm that removes current from the wire);

electric motors (located in the trolley);

air (compressor) disc brake (the disc is fixed on the axle - a railway system where the pads are pressed against the wheel is not possible due to compound wheels);

rail electromagnetic brake (emergency - slows down the tram with the help of motors and a disc brake), a characteristic beam between the wheels;

heating system (heaters under the seats and heat dissipation of resistances);

interior lighting system;

door drive.

The axles of one bogie turn slightly relative to each other, thanks to the suspension ("axle run"). In order for the wagon to pass the arc, it is necessary that the bogies turn. Thus, the minimum floor height is limited by the height of the trolley in conjunction with the thickness of the floor and technological clearances. The minimum height of the trolley is limited by the height of the wheel, while the underground space is not fully used (they try to place electrical equipment at the top, since, as already mentioned, it collects condensate). This is a traditional railway bogie design. On it is a frame, on the frame is a wagon. The only difference is that the tram wheel is a composite one. Between the outer rim and the wheel is a noise absorbing pad.

However, the cart can be not only axial, but also a U-shaped truss in cross section. At the same time, engines and other equipment can be located outside the wheels, and a low-floor section about forty meters wide is formed in the center of the bogie (tram track - 1524 mm). In this part of the cabin there will be elevations along the sides (as above the wheels of a bus).

By the way, before there were no carts on trams at all, and the car turned due to the run-up of the axles. Because of this, the axles could not be set wide, and all trams were short. At the same time, an aesthetic image of a trailer-tram was formed. Kogan L.Ya. Operation and repair of trams and trolleybuses. - M.: Transport, 1979. - 272 p.

An important place in the design of the tram is given to light indication and safety elements. The tram, like the car, has headlights, parking lights, reverse signals and direction indicators. Tram identification at night is aided by the arrangement of these elements. Traditionally, headlights on railway transport are arranged closer to the center; trains have one main searchlight. In trams, this is facilitated by the tapering shape of the nose (to reduce the overall overhang in a turn). Previously, there was one headlight, now there are two close-fitting ones. And the sides of the tram can perform a protective function: in the old trams there was a platform under the front hitch, resembling a sled seat and falling on the rails when braking, it was believed that this would help a person survive without falling under the tram. In the same way, the side boards were made at the level of the wheels between the carts (so that no one was pushed under the tram). Since then, nothing has changed, as before, the lower the board of the tram descends, the better.

Pantographs are of three types - drag, pantograph and trolley mustache.

The yoke is a traditional loop, practically insensitive to the quality of the air infrastructure. When driving in reverse the yoke breaks the wires at the joints, so a person must stand on the back footboard, pulling in the right places for the cable going to the yoke (the tram junction rolls over).

Pantographs and semi-pantographs are more versatile modern systems that work equally in any direction of travel and adapt to the height of the net just as well as a yoke, but require more complex maintenance.

Us (rod current collector, like on a trolleybus) - a system not used in Ukraine and does not make sense for a tram that does not maneuver relative to the contact network - wear is higher, operation is more difficult, problems with reverse are possible.

The contact wire itself is suspended in a zigzag pattern for uniform wear of the contact plate. Kalugin M.V., Malozemov B.V., Vorfolomeev G.N. Tram contact network as an object of diagnostics // Bulletin of the Irkutsk State Technical University. 2006. V. 25. No. 1. S. 97-101.

In the tram cabin, the seats are usually located along the sides, the number of which depends on the route congestion (the more passengers, the more standing places). Seats are not placed back to the side like in the subway, because passengers want to look out the window. Storage areas are arranged in front of the doors (without seats) - the concentration of people near the door is always higher. There should be a lot of handrails, while the longitudinal handrails run in the center of the cabin at a height not less than the height of a tall person, so that no one touches them with their heads, they should not have leather loops. The lighting system must be designed in such a way that both seated and standing passengers can read. Loudspeakers should be many, but quiet.