Chapter “Urban Planning” of the subsection “Architecture of the Roman Republic” of the section “Architecture of Ancient Rome” from the book “General History of Architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)” edited by B.P. Mikhailova.
For a number of centuries after the rise of the Roman state, its cities did not have a regular layout. They developed spontaneously, following the natural topography of the area. In this era, the main concern for city residents was the construction of protective fortifications and the implementation of the most necessary improvement measures (water supply and sewerage), and the question of the rational organization of the urban territory faded into the background. Therefore, urban planning activities for a long time were reduced to the construction of city walls, which covered the gradually expanding area of the city, to the construction of aqueducts and the creation of sewers. On the largest scale this happened in the capital of the state - Rome (Fig. 7).
In ancient times (VIII-VII centuries BC) Rome was a small settlement that arose on the Palatine Hill and was surrounded by a rampart and a moat (the so-called Square Rome). The dwellings were huts, usually elliptical in plan, measuring about 4.8 x 3.65 m, which consisted of a wooden frame and reed walls coated with clay. By the end of the 7th century. BC. the expanded settlement turned into a city of about 285 hectares, divided into four districts. The fortress was moved from the Palatine to the steep rocky Capitol, which became the acropolis of the city. By the 6th century BC. The oldest stone wall of Rome rises, made of tuff and with a perimeter of about 7 km. It is partially preserved on the Palatine, Capitol, Quirinal and Esquiline. In the V-III centuries. Rome was a city with a gradually formed irregular layout of narrow crooked streets, only by 296 BC. paved with cobblestones. The basis of the development were houses made of wood and adobe. Although the legislation of the 5th century. BC. provided for mandatory intervals between houses, the city periodically suffered from fires. Constant floods of the Tiber also caused great damage. Improvement was limited to sewerage, which, according to legend, existed already in the tsarist period, probably in the form of sewers, by the 3rd century. BC e. covered with vaults. At the foot of the Capitol, a round stone water cistern, Tullianum, which previously had a beehive-shaped dome, has been preserved.
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The capture and destruction of Rome by the Gauls at the beginning of the 4th century. BC. clearly demonstrated the need to build powerful defensive fortifications. In 378-352 The so-called Servian Wall was erected, which for a long time was mistakenly attributed to the era of King Servius Tullius (Fig. 8). The wall with a perimeter of 11 km covered an area of 426 hectares. Its remains survived on the Capitol, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline and Aventine. The builders of the Servian Wall combined Italian and Greek fortification techniques: the Italian earthen rampart and the stone belt of the walls of the Greek city-states. The shaft, here brought to 30-40 m in thickness, was located between the high front and lower rear walls. The height and volume of the shaft decreased in some areas, corresponding to the increase in the terrain, and disappeared at the steepest points. Thus, at the Capitol the wall was interrupted, since the mighty substructures of the platform of the temple of Jupiter, together with its podium above them, completed the steep rocky slope, making it inaccessible. A deep ditch in front of the wall increased its inaccessibility. The wall was made in “normal” dry masonry from alternating spoon and butt rows of tuff blocks. The size of the blocks, which varies in different places, ranges on average from 30 X 30 X 60 to 60 X 60 X 120 cm.
The existing wedge arches above the platform for installing catapults (on the Aventine and Quirinal) were built much later (II-I centuries BC).
The section of the wall on the Aventine, built last (217-87 BC) and most carefully, gives an idea of the former grandeur of the whole. The monumental Servian Wall was one of the greatest achievements of fortification of the ancient world.
In the 5th century BC. in the south of Italy in Magna Graecia and in the north in Etruria, cities with a regular layout already existed. The Hippodamian system spread widely in the Greek city-states of Italy - from the Athenian colony of Thurii, planned by Hippodamus himself, to Poseidonia and Naples. The rectangular layout of some Etruscan cities may also have been borrowed from the Greeks. But neither the Greeks nor, as studies of recent years have shown, the Etruscans, the uniform division of urban areas into quarters was not yet accompanied by a clear identification of two main mutually perpendicular highways. This distinction first appeared among the Romans as a result of the formation of their military camp. The conquering people attached great importance to the correct organization of the camp, so the most appropriate plan was gradually developed, which became standard and was used by Roman legionaries throughout the history of Rome. In the layout of the camp, the Romans’ inherent attraction to strict rationality and regularity, which was reflected in the clear organization of their state and military structure, found expression that was classic in its laconicism. The structure of a typical Roman camp was described in detail by the ancient historian Polybius (2nd century BC).
By the end of the day's march, the Roman legionaries had laid out a large rectangle on flat ground, oriented along the cardinal points. A deep ditch was dug along its contours and an earthen rampart was poured. A gate was installed in the center of each of the walls thus formed. The geographical orientation of the camp was emphasized by two main roads crossing it - the cardo, directed from north to south, and the decumanus, running from east to west. At their intersection there was a square for a general meeting of soldiers, which served as the administrative and religious center of the camp. Here the tents of military leaders and priests were set up, a camp altar was erected and a room for the treasury was built.
The tents of individual military formations were located in compliance with strictly established intervals. In addition to the cardo and decumanus, the camp was intersected by a number of mutually perpendicular narrower streets. Thus, the Roman camp acquired a rational plan system, composed of rectangular cells of different sizes (Fig. 9).
In the most important strongholds of the conquered territories, instead of temporary ones, permanent camps were built, which were strongholds of Roman domination. They were fortified with stone walls and had barracks instead of tents and stone buildings for the military-administrative apparatus and public institutions. Over time, these camps, connected by excellent roads with the metropolis, also became centers of attraction for trade and crafts, overgrown with residential buildings on the outside (houses of warrior families, homes of artisans and traders) and turned into the core of newly emerging cities. Many cities in Europe and the Mediterranean countries trace their origins to Roman camps. The Roman military camp made a significant contribution to ancient urban planning.
The first known city of the new type is the Roman fortress in Ostia, built in 340-335. BC. It arose at the mouth of the Tiber, at the sea gate of Rome, to protect this important strategic position (Fig. 10). Initially, the fortress on the left bank of the Tiber was relatively small (194 X 125.7 m). It had a rectangular grid of blocks - decumanus 7.35 m wide and cardo 6.9 m wide; at the place where they intersected there was a city square - a forum. The city retained this character until the end of the Punic Wars. After the destruction of Carthage and thanks to the rapid growth of Rome's maritime trade, the economic rise of Ostia began. The city walls ceased to serve as a boundary for development, and rapid construction began outside their boundaries, and the walls themselves were gradually destroyed. Construction was carried out haphazardly, due to which the city, while growing in size, at the same time lost the strict geometricity of its plan. The rectangular grid of blocks has been preserved only in the central part of the city. The direction of the main city highways also changed significantly, which, going beyond the boundaries of the old fortress, followed the direction of the roads approaching the city gates. Thus, the decumanus, which strictly followed the previous direction in the northeast, turned sharply to the south in its southwestern part. At the point where it turned, a street branched off to the northwest (modern Via della Foce). Thus, it practically turned out that the main city highway west - east at the border of the old city forked and, going at sharp angles to the old direction, one led to the sea, the other to the river. The direction of the cardo also changed sharply, which from the old city gate turned sharply in the direction of the southeast. A similar irregularity was repeated in other streets, thanks to which the city blocks acquired the most varied shapes. These streets were in most cases quite narrow, the predominant building type being one-story, rarely two-story buildings. The houses of the ruling class of the population were grouped around the forum. There were few temples and they were modest. In the 1st century BC. A new city wall was erected, which stabilized the size of the city square. The city received a trapezoidal plan, with its base facing the river.
The limitation of the size of the city area, together with the growing economic importance of Ostia as the main seaport of Rome, led to a significant change in the appearance of the city during imperial times.
In addition to Ostia, a number of cities with a regular layout arose during the period of the republic - Minturno(beginning of the 3rd century BC), Pyrgi(mid-3rd century BC), etc. In some cities there were several cardos and decumanuses (for example, in Herculaneum, Fig. 11).
Pompeii occupies a special place in the urban planning of the republic, since the city, covered with volcanic ash on August 24, 79 AD, is perfectly preserved and gives an exceptionally complete picture not only of the layout and architecture, but also of many aspects of the life and everyday life of its inhabitants.
Pompeii was founded in the 6th century. BC. by the Greeks. Over several centuries of its history, the city repeatedly changed hands, until at the end of the 1st century. BC. did not become a Roman city that received colonial rights, where a fairly significant number of Roman settlers were settled. The long history of the city has left its mark on its architectural appearance, which is characterized by a mixture of Greek and Roman features. The oldest part of the city (southwestern), adjacent to the forum, has retained its original layout with its narrow, crooked streets and irregularly shaped blocks (Fig. 12). Other areas are more orderly, although the city as a whole lacks strict regularity. Thus, if the new area southwest of the Vesuvan Gate consists of a grid of rectangular blocks, then the regularity of the blocks east of Stabian Street is very peculiar - they have a diamond shape.
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| 12. Pompeii. Panorama of the city, streets in the ancient part, city plan: a - forum; b - Triangular Forum; c - Bolshoi and Maly theaters; g - Stabian baths; d - amphitheater; e - house of the Vettiev; f - house of Faun | |
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In Pompeii, the basis of the city's layout is formed by two decumanus (Stabian and Mercury streets) and two cardos (Abundance and Nolan streets). The outline of the plan is irregular, corresponding to the surface of a lava plateau occupying the area between the slopes of Vesuvius and the sea. The huge picturesque peak of Vesuvius reigned over the city and the Bay of Naples. Two of the city's most important highways are directed towards it - Stabianskaya and Mercury streets. The elongated area of the forum, the longitudinal axis of the amphitheater, and the Temple of Apollo are oriented towards Vesuvius. Thanks to this, the picturesque green cone of the mountain, clearly silhouetted against the bright blue sky, is present in every urban perspective, making it easier to navigate.
Roman colonists introduced new features into the character of Pompeii. They manifested themselves most clearly in the area of the forum, for a city that had a Roman municipal structure should have had a corresponding public center. The Forum of Pompeii was located, unlike new cities, not in the center of urban development, but in the southwestern sector of the city.
The principles of regular planning of a military camp and the center of an Italian city, developed during the period of the republic, formed the basis of the urban planning of the empire.
The Old Russian city is a fortified settlement, which at the same time was the military, economic, political, social and cultural center of the entire surrounding territory. Merchants, artisans, monks, painters, etc. settled in the cities.
Founding of ancient Russian cities
The history of Russian cities began with the appearance in a certain place of people who built housing and settled in it for a long time. In the vicinity of ancient cities that have survived to this day (Moscow, Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir, etc.) traces of early eras, dating back to the Paleolithic, have been found. During the time of the Trypillian culture, settlements of several dozen and hundreds of houses and dwellings already existed on the territory of future Russia.
The settlements of Ancient Rus', as a rule, were located on elevated places near natural sources of water (rivers, springs). They consisted of houses protected from enemy attacks by a log palisade. The predecessors of Russian cities in the Middle Ages are considered to be fortified sanctuaries and shelters (Detinets and the Kremlin), erected by residents of several settlements in the area.
Early medieval cities were founded not only by the Slavs, but also by other tribes: Rostov the Great was founded by the Finno-Ugric tribe, Murom by the Murom tribe, Suzdal, Vladimir were founded by the Merians together with the Slavs. In addition to the Slavs, Kievan Rus included the Baltic and Finno-Ugric peoples, who merged into a single people through political unification.
In the 9th-10th centuries, along with cities of refuge, small fortresses began to appear, and then settlements in which artisans and merchants settled. The exact dates of the founding of early Russian cities are usually established only by the first mentions in the chronicles of those times. Some dates for the founding of cities were established as a result of archaeological excavations of the places where there were ancient Russian cities. Thus, Novgorod and Smolensk are mentioned in chronicles of the 9th century, but cultural layers earlier than the 10th century have not yet been discovered.
The largest cities that began to develop rapidly in the 9th-10th centuries. on the main waterways - these are the cities of Polotsk, Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Izborsk, etc. Their development was directly related to trade carried out at the intersections of roads and waterways.
Ancient fortresses and defensive structures
There were “senior” cities and suburbs (subordinates), which came from settlements from the main cities, and their settlement was carried out according to orders from the capital. Any ancient Russian fortified city consisted of a fortified part and nearby unfortified settlements, around which there were lands used for haymaking, fishing, grazing livestock, and forest areas.
The main defensive role was played by earthen ramparts and wooden walls, under which there were ditches. Suitable terrain was used to build defensive fortifications. Thus, most of the fortresses of Ancient Rus' were located in protected areas: hilltops, islands or mountain capes.
An example of such a fortified city is the city of Vyshgorod, located near Kyiv. From the very foundation it was built as a fortress, surrounded by powerful earthen and wooden fortifications with ramparts and a moat. The city was divided into the princely part (Detinets), the Kremlin and the Posad, where the artisans' quarters were located.
The fortress rampart was a complex structure consisting of huge wooden frames (often made of oak) standing end to end, the space between which was filled with stones and earth. The size of such log houses, for example, in Kyiv was 6.7 m, in the transverse part more than 19 m. The height of the earthen rampart could reach 12 m, and the ditch dug in front of it often had the shape of a triangle. At the top there was a parapet with a combat platform, where the defenders of the fortress were located, who shot at enemies and threw stones. Wooden towers were built at turning points.
The only entrance to the ancient fortress was through a special bridge laid over the moat. The bridge was placed on supports, which were destroyed during attacks. Later they began to build drawbridges.
Internal structure of the fortress
Old Russian cities of the 10th-13th centuries. already had a complex internal structure, which developed as the territory increased and united various fortified parts along with the settlements. The layout of cities was different: radial, radial-circular or linear (along a river or road).
The main social and economic centers of the ancient city:
- Church residence and Vechevaya square.
- Prince's court.
- Port and trading area next to it.
The center of the city is the detinets or kremlin with fortified walls, ramparts and a moat. Gradually, socio-political administration was grouped in this place, the princely courts, the city cathedral, the dwellings of servants and squads, as well as artisans were located. The street layout consisted of highways that ran along the river bank or perpendicular to it.
Roads and utilities
Each ancient Russian city had its own plan, according to which roads and communications were laid. The engineering device for that time was at a fairly high level.
Wooden pavements were built, consisting of longitudinal logs (10-12 m long) and wooden logs, split in half, with the flat side up, laid on top. The pavements had a width of 3.5-4 m, and in the 13-14th centuries. already 4-5 m and usually functioned for 15-30 years.
The drainage systems of ancient Russian cities were of 2 types:
- “sewage”, which drained underground water from under buildings, consisting of barrels for collecting water and wooden pipes through which water flowed into a catch basin;
- a catch basin - a square wooden frame, from which dirty water then flowed down a thick pipe towards the river.
Structure of an urban estate
The estate in the city consisted of several residential buildings and outbuildings. The area of such yards ranged from 300 to 800 square meters. m. Each estate was fenced with a wooden fence from neighbors and the street, which was made in the form of a palisade of spruce logs sticking up to 2.5 m high. Inside it, residential buildings stood on one side, and economic ones (cellar, medusha, cage, cowshed, granary, stable, bathhouse, etc.). A hut was any heated building with a stove.
The ancient dwellings that made up the ancient Russian city began their existence as semi-dugouts (10th-11th centuries), then above-ground buildings with several rooms (12th century). Houses were built on 1-3 floors. The semi-dugouts had a pillar structure of walls up to 5 m long each and up to 0.8 m deep; a round clay or stone oven was placed near the entrance. The floors were made of clay or planks, and the door was always located on the south wall. The roof was a gable roof made of wood, which was coated with clay on top.
Old Russian architecture and religious buildings
Cities in Ancient Rus' were places where monumental buildings were built, which were mainly associated with the Christian religion. The traditions and rules for the construction of ancient temples came to Rus' from Byzantium, which is why they were built according to a cross-dome design. Temples were erected by order of wealthy princes and the Orthodox Church itself.
The first monumental buildings were tithe churches, the oldest of which has survived to this day is the Spasskaya Church in Chernigov (1036). Starting from the 11th century, more complex temples with galleries, staircase towers, and several domes began to be built. Ancient architects sought to make the interior expressive and colorful. An example of such a temple is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv; similar cathedrals were erected in Novgorod and Polotsk.
A slightly different, but bright and original, architectural school has developed in the North-East of Rus', which is characterized by many decorative carved elements, slender proportions and plasticity of facades. One of the masterpieces of that time is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165).
Population of ancient Russian cities
The bulk of the city's population are artisans, fishermen, day laborers, merchants, the prince and his squad, the administration and the lord's "servants", an important role in connection with the baptism of Rus' began to be played by the clergy (monks and churchmen). A very large group of the population was made up of all kinds of craft people who settled according to their specialties: blacksmiths, gunsmiths, jewelers, carpenters, weavers and tailors, tanners, potters, masons, etc.
In every city there was always a market through which the purchase and sale of all produced and imported goods and products was carried out.
The largest ancient Russian city was Kyiv in the 12th-13th centuries. numbered 30-40 thousand people, Novgorod - 20-30 thousand. Smaller cities: Chernigov, Vladimir, Polotsk, Smolensk, Rostov, Vitebsk, Ryazan and others had a population of several thousand people. The number of people living in smaller towns rarely exceeded 1 thousand people.
The largest lands of Ancient Rus': Volyn, Galician, Kiev, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Ryazan, Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, Chernigov.
History of Novgorod land
In terms of the territory covered by the Novgorod land (north and east of the living Finno-Ugric tribes), it was considered the most extensive Russian possession, including the suburbs of Pskov, Staraya Russa, Velikie Luki, Ladoga and Torzhok. Already by the end of the 12th century. this included Perm, Pechora, Yugra (Northern Urals). All cities had a clear hierarchy, dominated by Novgorod, which owned the most important trade routes: merchant caravans coming from the Dnieper, passing to Sweden and Denmark, as well as leading to the northeastern princely fiefs through the Volga and to Bulgaria.
The wealth of Novgorod merchants increased due to the trade in inexhaustible forest resources, but agriculture on this land was barren, so grain was brought to Novgorod from neighboring principalities. The population of the Novgorod land was engaged in cattle breeding, growing cereals, garden and vegetable crops. Trades were very developed: fur, walrus, etc.
Political life of Novgorod
According to archaeological excavations by the 13th century. Novgorod was a large fortified and well-organized city, inhabited by artisans and merchant people. His political life was controlled by local boyars. On these lands in Ancient Rus', very large boyar landholdings developed, which consisted of 30-40 clans that monopolized many government positions.
The free population, which included the Novgorod land, was the boyars, living people (small landowners), merchants, traders and artisans. And the dependents included slaves and stinkers. A characteristic feature of the life of Novgorod is the calling of the prince through the execution of a contract for reign, and he was chosen only to make judicial decisions and military leadership in the event of an attack. All the princes were visitors from Tver, Moscow and other cities, and each tried to tear away some volosts from the Novgorod land, which is why they were immediately replaced. Over 200 years, 58 princes changed in the city.
Political rule in these lands was carried out by the Novgorod Veche, which, in essence, represented a federation of self-governing communities and corporations. The political history of Novgorod has developed successfully precisely due to the participation in all processes of all groups of the population, from the boyars to the “black people”. However, in 1418, the discontent of the lower classes culminated in their uprising, in which residents rushed to destroy the rich houses of the boyars. Bloodshed was avoided only through the intervention of the clergy, who resolved the dispute through the courts.
The heyday of the Novgorod Republic, which existed for many centuries, elevated the large and beautiful city to the level of medieval European settlements, whose architecture and military strength admired its contemporaries. As a western outpost, Novgorod successfully repelled all attacks of the German knights, preserving the national identity of the Russian land.
History of the land of Polotsk
Polotsk land covered in the 10th-12th centuries. the territory from the Western Dvina River to the sources of the Dnieper, creating a river route between the Baltic and the Black Sea. The largest cities of this land in the early Middle Ages: Vitebsk, Borisov, Lukoml, Minsk, Izyaslavl, Orsha, etc.
The Polotsk inheritance was created by the Izyaslavich dynasty at the beginning of the 11th century, which secured it for itself, abandoning claims to Kyiv. The very appearance of the phrase “Polotsk land” was already marked in the 12th century. separation of this territory from Kyiv.
At this time, the Vseslavich dynasty ruled the land, but there were also redistributions of tables, which ultimately led to the collapse of the principality. The next Vasilkovich dynasty already ruled Vitebsk, displacing the Polotsk princes.
In those days, Lithuanian tribes were also subordinate to Polotsk, and the city itself was often threatened with attack by its neighbors. The history of this land is very confusing and little confirmed by sources. The Polotsk princes often fought with Lithuania, and sometimes acted as its ally (for example, during the capture of the city of Velikiye Luki, which at that time belonged to the Novgorod land).
Polotsk troops made frequent raids on many Russian lands, and in 1206 they launched an assault on Riga, but were unsuccessful. By the beginning of the 13th century. In this region, the influence of the Livonian Swordsmen and the Smolensk Principality increases, then there is a massive invasion of the Lithuanians, who by 1240 subjugate the Polotsk lands. Then, after the war with Smolensk, the city of Polotsk came into the possession of Prince Tovtiwill, by the end of whose principality (1252) the Old Russian period in the history of the Polotsk land ended.
Old Russian cities and their role in history
Old Russian medieval cities were founded as human settlements located at the crossroads of trade routes and rivers. Their other goal was to protect residents from attacks by neighbors and enemy tribes. As cities developed and consolidated, there was an increase in property inequality, the creation of tribal principalities, and the expansion of trade and economic ties between cities and their residents, which subsequently influenced the creation and historical development of a single state - Kievan Rus.
From its very appearance, Rus' was famous for its densely populated and fortified villages. It was so famous that the Varangians, who later began to rule it, called the Slavic lands “Gardariki” - a country of cities. The Scandinavians were amazed by the fortifications of the Slavs, since they themselves spent most of their lives at sea. Now we can figure out what the ancient Russian city is and why it is famous.
Reasons for appearance
It is no secret that man is a social being. For better survival, he needs to gather in groups. And if earlier the tribe became such a “center of life,” then with the disappearance of barbaric customs it was necessary to look for a civilized replacement.
In fact, the emergence of cities in people's lives is so natural that it could hardly be otherwise. They differ from a village or village in one important factor - the fortifications that protected the settlements. In other words, walls. It is from the word “fence” (fortification) that the word “city” comes from.
The formation of ancient Russian cities is associated, first of all, with the need for protection from enemies and the creation of an administrative center for the principality. After all, it was in them that the “blue blood” of Rus' was most often found. A sense of security and comfort was important to these people. All traders and artisans flocked here, turning the settlements into Novgorod, Kiev, Lutsk, bustling with life.
In addition, the newly created settlements became excellent trading centers; merchants from all over the world could flock here, receiving the promise of being under the protection of a military squad. Due to the incredible importance of trade, cities in Rus' were most often built on the banks of rivers (for example, the Volga or Dnieper), since at that time waterways were the safest and fastest way to deliver goods. Settlements along the river banks became richer than ever before.
Population
First of all, the city could not exist without a ruler. It was either the prince or his deputy. The building in which he lived was the richest secular housing; it became the center of the settlement. He resolved various legal issues and established procedures.
The second part of the ancient Russian city is the boyars - people close to the prince and capable of influencing him directly with their words. They occupied various official positions and lived in such settlements richer than anyone, except perhaps the merchants, but they did not stay in one place for long. At that time, their life was an endless road.
Next, we need to remember about the various artisans of all possible professions, from icon painters to blacksmiths. As a rule, their living quarters were located inside the city, and their work workshops were outside the walls.
And the last in the social ladder were the peasants; they did not live inside the settlement, but were located on the lands that they cultivated. As a rule, people entered the Old Russian gorodon only for trade or legal matters.
Cathedral
The center of the ancient Russian city is the church. The cathedral, located in front of the main square, was a real symbol. The most monumental, decorated and rich building, the temple was the center of spiritual power.
The larger the city became, the more churches appeared inside it. But none of them had the right to be grander than the main and first temple, which personified the entire settlement. Princely cathedrals, parish and house churches - they all seemed to reach out to the main spiritual center.
Monasteries played a special role, which sometimes became literally cities within cities. Often a fortified settlement could arise precisely around the place of residence of the monks. Then the main temple of the monastery became dominant in the spiritual life of the city.
Cathedrals were actively decorated, and gilded domes appeared for a reason: they were visible for many kilometers, and they were a “guiding star” for travelers and lost souls. The temple, with its splendor, was supposed to remind people that earthly life is nothing, and only God’s beauty, which was the church, can be considered true.
Gates
Gates, of which there were up to four in fortified villages (on the cardinal points), were, oddly enough, given great importance. As the only passage into the ancient Russian city, they represented enormous symbolic meaning: “to open the gates” meant to give the city to the enemy.
They tried to decorate the gates as much as possible, and it would be better to make at least one of them a grand entrance through which the prince and noble people would enter. They were supposed to instantly shock the visitor and testify to the prosperity and happiness of the local residents. No money or effort was spared on the good finishing of the gates; the entire city often repaired them.
It was also customary to consider them a kind of sacred place, which was protected not only by earthly troops, but also by saints. In the rooms above the gate there were often many icons, and right next to them there was a small chapel, the purpose of which was to protect the entrance by the Will of God.
Bargain
A small area, usually near a river (most settlements were founded around them), was a necessary part of economic life. The ancient Russian cities of Russia could hardly have existed without trade, the main ones of which were merchants.
Here, at the auction, they placed and unloaded their goods, and this is where the main transactions took place. Often, spontaneously, a market appeared here. Not the one where peasants traded, but a rich place created for the city elite with a lot of foreign goods and expensive jewelry. It represented not a symbolic, but a true “sign of quality” of the settlement. It was from the bargaining that one could understand how rich the settlement was, because the merchant would not stand idle where there was no profit.
Mansions
The embodiment of secular power was the residence of the prince or governor. It was not only the residence of the ruler, but also an administrative building. Various legal issues were resolved here, trials took place, and troops gathered before campaigns. It was often the most fortified place in the city, with a protected courtyard, where all residents had to run in the event of a military threat.
Around the ruler's chambers there were less wealthy boyar houses. Most often they were made of wood, unlike a prince’s house, which could be afforded. Old Russian cities were architecturally rich precisely thanks to the dwellings of the nobility, who tried to decorate their home as much as possible and show their material wealth.
Ordinary people lived in separate wooden one-story houses or huddled in barracks, which most often stood on the very edge of the city.
Fortifications
As already mentioned, the cities of the ancient Russian state were created, first of all, to protect people. For this purpose, fortifications were organized.
At first the walls were wooden, but over time stone defensive structures appeared more and more often. It is clear that only wealthy princes could afford such a “pleasure”. Fortifications made from heavy logs pointed at the top were called forts. A similar word originally designated every city in the Old Russian language.
In addition to the palisade itself, the settlement was protected by an earthen rampart. In general, most often settlements appeared in advantageous strategic points. In the lowlands, the city would not last long (until the first military conflict), and therefore most often they were based on high points. We can say that we know nothing about poorly fortified settlements, because they instantly disappeared from the face of the earth.
Layout
For modern, very chaotic and confusing settlements, the real example is the ancient Russian city. The fortress, in which most of the population lived, was truly skillfully and precisely planned, as nature itself would dictate.
Essentially, the cities of that time were round in shape. In the middle, as already mentioned, stood two important centers: spiritual and secular. This is the main cathedral and the prince's estate. Around them, twisting in a spiral, were the rich houses of the boyars. Thus, wrapping around, for example, a hill, the city descended lower and lower, to the walls. Inside, it was divided into “streets” and “ends,” which ran like threads through the spirals and went from the gate to the main center.
A little later, with the development of settlements, the workshops, which were initially located outside the main line, were also surrounded by walls, creating secondary fortifications. Gradually, over the centuries, cities grew in exactly this way.
Kyiv
Of course, the modern capital of Ukraine is the most famous ancient Russian city. In it you can find confirmation of all the theses stated above. In addition, it must be considered the first truly large fortified village on the territory of the Slavs.
The main city, surrounded by fortifications, was located on a hill, and Podol was occupied by workshops. There, next to the Dnieper, there was a market. The main entrance to Kyiv, its main entrance, is the famous Golden Gate, which, as was said, had not only practical, but also sacred significance, especially since they were named after the gates of Constantinople.
It became the spiritual center of the city. It was to him that other temples and churches gravitated, which he surpassed in both beauty and grandeur.
Velikiy Novgorod
Old Russian cities in Russia cannot be listed without mentioning. This densely populated center of the principality served a very important purpose: it was an extremely “European” city. It was here that diplomats and traders from the Old World flocked, since Novgorod was located in the middle of the trade routes of Europe and the rest of Rus'.
The main thing that we have now received thanks to Novgorod is an incomparably huge number of different historical monuments. There is a unique opportunity to see them right now by buying a plane ticket because Novgorod was not destroyed and captured during the Mongol yoke, although it paid an exorbitant tribute.
The so-called “Novgorod Kremlin”, or Novgorod Detinets, is widely known. These fortifications served as a reliable fort for the great city for a long time. In addition, one cannot fail to mention Yaroslav's Dvorishche - a huge district of Novgorod on the banks of the Volkhov, where there was a market and many houses of a wide variety of wealthy merchants. In addition, it is assumed that it was there that the prince’s monastery was located, although it has still not been possible to find it in Veliky Novgorod, perhaps due to the absence of an integral princely system as such in the history of the settlement.
Moscow
The history of ancient Russian cities, of course, cannot be described without the presence in the list of such a grandiose settlement as Moscow. It had the opportunity to grow and become the center of modern Russia thanks to its unique location: virtually every major northern trade route passed by it.
Of course, the main historical attraction of the city is the Kremlin. It is with it that the first associations now arise when this word is mentioned, although initially it simply meant “fortress.” Initially, as for all cities, the defense of Moscow was made of wood and much later acquired the familiar appearance.
The Kremlin also houses the main temple of Moscow - the Assumption Cathedral, which has been perfectly preserved to this day. Its appearance literally embodies the architecture of its time.
Bottom line
Many names of ancient Russian cities were not mentioned here, but the goal was not to create a list of them. Three are enough to clearly demonstrate how conservative the Russian people were in establishing settlements. And you can’t say that they had this quality undeservedly; no, the appearance that the cities had was dictated by the very nature of survival. The plan was as practical as possible and, in addition, created a symbol of the real center of the region, which the fortified settlements were. Now such construction of cities is no longer relevant, but it is possible that someday they will talk about our architecture in the same way.
Before drawing our own Ideal City Plan, we studied maps and layouts created by others.
Here are examples of plans from different eras and countries.
Some plans resemble drawings or ornaments, some amaze with the totality of their worldview (for example, Babylonian).
The people who planned the city did not consider it separately from nature, from the world. They planned its connection with the "mountain worlds" in the same way that modern cities "fit" into economic, geographical or communication connections.
Samal (Zendirli). Syro-Hittite city of the X-VIII centuries. BC e. Inside the city, on a hill, there is a citadel with palace and temple buildings. The city is surrounded by double fortress walls
Military security considerations are no longer important when planning cities. However, most ancient cities resemble some type of military fortification.
The Sumerian-Akkadian city of Tudub (modern Khafaji) existed three thousand years BC. e. on the eastern tributary of the Tigris. Reconstruction of the sacred site
In addition to the military, the ritual side of life was of great importance. In many cities, Temples occupied the central public space.
Plan of the Sumerian city of Ur between the XXIII-XXII centuries. BC e. (according to Woolley). The city is surrounded by powerful fortress walls; in the center is a sacred area:
1-ziggurat; 2-sacred court of Nannar; 3-temple of Nannar and his wife Ningal; 4-double Ningal temple; 5-Palace of Urnammu and Dungi
The ancient Babylonians' idea of the universe, which formed the basis of the Babylonian plan
City Ur. Children's drawing.
Panorama of Florence
Tbilisi plan. Engraving V111 century.
The urban environment is a complex functional-spatial system of inextricably linked parts of the city. In this system, both buildings and structures and the spaces of streets, intersections and squares interact equally. In addition, this system includes many other components: from unique works of monumental and decorative art to standard elements of urban equipment and landscaping.
The space of the city is the strict lines of avenues and cozy alleys, giant enterprises and shady parks, granite embankments and old cozy courtyards. All this represents the current appearance of the city, towards which humanity has been moving for millennia.
The most ancient urban-type settlements, which arose in the 7th-6th millennia BC, were not yet cities in the modern sense. The village of Çatalhöyük, located in the mountains in what is now Turkey, consisted of hundreds of thick-walled stone houses pressed against one another. There were no streets in the village, not even a tiny square. The entire village was a single dwelling compressed into a single unit.
Streets and squares in settlements appeared much later. The largest and most compact of them began to be called cities. The spatial organization of cities was formed by the relative position and interconnections of streets and squares, i.e. a system that forms the planning structure of a city.
Centuries-old experience of urban planning shows that under the most diverse conditions for the formation of cities, the spatial structure of their planning has a fairly limited number of types. From the point of view of geometric design, urban structures can be reduced to three main types.
The evolution of the spatial environment of cities over more than two millennia is reflected in the alternation of these three types of planning structures.
The appearance of the rectangular layout dates back to the most ancient periods of urban planning, associated with the development of the civilizations of India, Egypt, Mesopotamia and China. The Indian city, as described in the treatise of Manasara, had a rectangular plan, surrounded by a wall with eight entrances and divided into equal blocks with mutually perpendicular streets. The quarter was built up with a group of residential buildings, fenced off from the streets by a wall. It was recommended to change the width of city streets depending on their purpose: pedestrian intra-block streets were narrow and had a natural outline, and the main network of wide streets (today we call them highways) was rectangular and clearly oriented according to the cardinal points. The city center occupied an area of four blocks, in the middle of which was the main building.
In India, in ancient times, urban planning principles were formed on the basis of “sacred diagrams called “mandalas”.
Plan of Jaipur (India). Square #3 replaced the existing mountain and moved to the square. Next, squares No. 1 and 2 connected, giving space to the palace
The earliest description of rectangular plans is associated with the Indian city of Mohenjo-Daro (translated as the city of the dead), whose heyday dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. The precision of the plan expresses an urban planning concept that meets the needs of a highly organized society for that time. Streets are straight, parallel and perpendicular to the bottom of another. Individual elements and quarters of the city are interconnected and create a single structure.
The correct geometric outlines of the city plan are also characteristic of small ancient Egyptian cities. Large cities that were being built up. as a rule, they took a long time and spontaneously, more often they had an irregular layout. Small towns can be considered using the example of Kahuna, built
Kahun (Egypt). Plan of the northwestern part of the city at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. It had the shape of a rectangle, oriented strictly according to the cardinal points. Its territory of 10 hectares consisted of two parts: the first was filled with equal-sized quarters for slaves, the second with houses of the highest administration. This is how the eastern region of Akhetaten (Tel El Amarna) was built up.
Chinese city, mentioned in a treatise of the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC, Zhou-li-Kao-Gongzi was also founded using a modular square grid with a much larger block size (with a side of about 200 m), representing a fairly large complex of residential or public buildings. The plan is central, without highlighting the main directions of movement from the periphery to the center.
An analysis of the spatial structure of the ancient cities of India, Egypt and China suggests that during this period two primary elements of the city had already been formed: space (settlement) and communications (roads). In addition, the centricity of urban space was clearly demonstrated. The focal point, the center of gravity of the space, was occupied by the temple - a symbol of the settlement. A large area was left undeveloped around it, which had not yet received independent architectural significance, but played an important social role. In ancient cities, the architecture of each object, as a rule, was formed independently, independently of other neighboring objects.
The rectangular layout was brilliantly developed in the cities of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In ancient Greek culture, cities generally occupied a very special place, since they were independent units not only economically, but also in military and political terms, i.e. were actually city-states.
Even in the archaic period, the characteristic structure of the ancient city developed, the core of which was a sacred site - the acropolis, which housed the main temples and was located, as a rule, on a rock or the top of a fortified hill. At the foot of the acropolis, which served as a citadel for the city's population, residential areas were built - the so-called lower city with a shopping area (agora) and public buildings. The city was protected by walls along the entire perimeter.
At first, Greek cities had an irregular, free layout, subordinate to the natural topography of the area. However, which began in the 5th century. BC. The reconstruction of Greek cities, which were destroyed during the many years of Greco-Persian wars, was already carried out on the basis of regular plans. The modular structure of ancient cities is being improved, acquiring the outlines of the so-called Hippodamian grid (system). Piraeus, Thurii and the cities of Rhodes are believed to have been built on this grid. Since the rectangular modular grid was known to ancient city planners, Hippodamus (5th century BC) is not responsible for the discovery of this system, but for its improvement and dissemination. Despite the rigidity of the rectangular. The Greeks freely placed blocks on the city border, which gave the layout extreme flexibility and contributed to the dispersion of zones to accommodate the city's public functions. These were the first attempts to use a polycentric structure. The use of the Hippodamian system allowed the residential areas of the lower part of the Greek city to take the form of squares or slightly elongated rectangles, separated by an equal grid of streets. The introduction of the Hippodamian grid was facilitated by the tendency of Greek society towards democratization, which led to a standard in the distribution of urban territory.
It should be especially noted that Greek city planners managed to fit rigid planning grids into the complex terrain. At the same time, the port cities, whose outline followed the complex coastline, were organized comfortably, diversely and harmoniously inside. The Hippodamian grid in them resembles not so much a rigid lattice of a planning structure, but rather a canvas, using which the architect creates exquisite “embroidery” without any interference. The amazing ability to combine regularity of plan and picturesque nature was later lost.
The famous historian of urban planning A. Bunin explained this by the fact that Greek cities were small, the population of the largest of them was no more than 50 thousand people. Of course, with such dimensions, the Hippodamian grid did not threaten to bore you with its mechanistic monotony, which is inevitable in large cities. Be that as it may, the plans of Greek cities forever remained the pearls of world urban planning, in which the organic nature of nature’s creation was miraculously combined with the rational will of man.
Regular structure of Greek cities of the V-II centuries. BC. became the prototype of many urban planning solutions of the next two millennia, including projects of the so-called ideal cities.
Being a creative continuation and development of ancient Greek architecture, Roman urban culture, under the conditions of the same ancient slaveholding formation, made a significant step forward. The layout of numerous cities and military camps, founded throughout the territory of the gigantic empire, was based on the use of a standard that allowed saving effort, money and time. The significance of the Roman urban planning experience also lies in the fact that it was the first to carry out significant measures on engineering equipment and urban improvement.
The planning principles of Roman cities, built of stone and marble, are very similar to the structure of the military camps of the same Romans, which consisted of portable tents, that is, the purely military requirements of that period left a major imprint on the layout of Roman cities.
A typical example of rectangular modular solutions is the plan of Timgad (Roman colony in Africa, 1st century BC).
Comparing the regular plans of ancient cities in many countries, one can notice many common features, which is caused not only by possible influences and continuity, but also by objective patterns that determined the emergence of planning solutions that are very similar in meaning.
The fate of European cities in this period - iW-X centuries. AD) developed differently. Some of them were revived by those ancient Roman settlements. Looking at the plans of cities such as Florence or Milan, it is not difficult to recognize fragments of a regular ancient Roman layout in the central core. Most of the medieval cities arise in a “pure place”, being for their time what we call today new cities. Often such a city is formed near a well-defended castle of a feudal lord or a monastery, which served as a refuge for the surrounding population during periods of frequent wars and civil strife. Along with this, the most important factor in the emergence, especially of ancient Russian cities, such as Moscow, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, etc., were natural conditions: topography of the area, river bend, etc.
At first, the medieval city was scattered, consisting of several relatively isolated areas, separated by areas of natural landscape or agricultural land. However, defense requirements forced the city to be surrounded by well-fortified walls. Vacant lands within the city fortifications were quickly built up - the city became compact.
Thus, regardless of where the medieval city began its development (from the remains of a Roman camp, from a feudal castle, or even “from scratch”), in a relatively short time, in most cases, it arrived at the stereotypical radial form of a compact plan.
As the city expanded its borders, radial connections alone became insufficient. Transverse, ring connections appear. The most suitable reserve for their creation was the rings of city fortifications, which were gradually losing their defensive significance. Subsequently, this happened in Paris, Milan, Vienna. This was the case in Moscow, where the Boulevard Ring lay in place of the walls of the White City, and the Garden Ring in place of the earthen ramparts.
The naturally formed radial-ring plan of a medieval city is a curved lattice, which, in contrast to the uniform orthogonal lattice, is folded into its most compact form near the main center. The growth of settlements around one center can be compared to the formation of annual rings in a tree trunk.
In the 12th century In the north of France, the Gothic style arose, “creating a system of forms and a new understanding of the organization of space and volumetric composition.” Urban planning of that time can also be called spatial. Any new building was linked to the conditions of the existing environment, and the desire to solve the ensemble became an integral task.
Indeed, the city in the Middle Ages developed not in some predetermined style and not on the basis of a two-dimensional plan recorded on paper, but on the basis of the three-dimensional picture that was presented to the architect in his imagination. From the point of view of aesthetic perception of urban space, this was the best way to design.
The centric composition of the medieval city was determined not only by the configuration of the plan and its small size, but also by the entire history and internal logic of its formation. It was reflected, in particular, in the pyramidal silhouette of the city, since the number of storeys of the building increased towards the center, which was emphasized by the dominant features of the town hall and the main cathedral. At the same time, the top of a hill or a bend of a steep river bank was often chosen for the center.
The relatively small size of medieval cities further enhanced the spatial effect of the naturally developing organic monocentric layout. Ten, five, even two thousand people - this is the population of not the smallest European cities of the 14th-15th centuries. Nuremberg, one of the largest cities in Germany, had only 20 thousand people. And only such world centers of crafts and trade as Venice and Florence had a population of about 100 thousand. The largest Russian cities of Kyiv and Novgorod were not inferior in area to European capitals, but their development was less dense: since ancient times, people in Rus' were more spacious and wider. But even in such cities, the diameter of the territory built up within the walls did not exceed 2-3 km, and in most cases it was less than 1 km. With such a size, the city was convenient for pedestrians, easily and organically fit into the natural landscape and was perceived as a single architectural whole both from inside the city itself and from the outside.
Ancient engravings have captured for us the characteristic appearance of a medieval city - a semblance of an artificial hill formed by a dense cluster of houses stuck to each other, above which the majestic and graceful towers of the town hall and cathedral rise. The contours thus formed are very characteristic of each city. This picture is called a city silhouette.
The Middle Ages gave a powerful impetus to the development of cities, essentially reshaping them. It was in the Middle Ages that cities received a rational, comprehensive layout and, very importantly, a spatial approach began to be used in their design. Among urban planners of medieval cities, a point of view gradually prevailed that opposed the separate consideration of architectural and planning tasks.
The improvement of the urban appearance, its saturation with prestigious buildings and public spaces was a consequence of the growth of the economic and political power of cities, which they achieved in Europe by the beginning of the 14th century.
On the basis of profound changes in the economic and political structure of society, progressive changes took place in public consciousness. A new worldview was born, a new attitude to life, faith in the limitless possibilities of a person who creates his own destiny. All this was in tune with the spirit of ancient philosophy and culture. The cult of a harmoniously developed person, characteristic of antiquity, corresponded to the mood of modern times, when the full development of personal initiative, and therefore a certain emancipation of individual consciousness, became the most important factors of social and economic progress. This unique period in the history of culture is usually called the Renaissance (Renaissance).
The principles of humanism were served by the rediscovered heritage of antiquity. The rediscovered treatise of Vitruvius (1st century BC) “Ten Books on Architecture” became an irreplaceable source on the history of ancient culture. In the study of ancient architecture, this work played no less, and sometimes even greater, role than architectural monuments.
The first cities to become the scene of architectural renewal during the Renaissance were the cities of northern Italy - Venice and Florence. They gained political independence earlier than others and became the largest centers of international trade, handicraft, and then manufacturing production.
The economic and political status of a prosperous city made it necessary to take care of architectural prestige: magnificent cathedrals and palaces (palazzos) were built. Spread along the banks of the river. The Arno, surrounded by green hills on one side and the spurs of the Apennines on the other, Florence looks restrained and monumental. The skyline of Florence is dominated by the huge dome of the main cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the construction of which began in 1296 and was completed by the architect F. Brunelleschi in 1436.
Venice is located on a completely flat place, in a lagoon, on sandy islands separated by narrow channels and cut by canals. The silhouette of Venice is dominated by the slender verticals of the bell towers, which are clearly visible on the flat relief. If in Florence architectural volumes suppress and subjugate the urban space, then in Venice the architecture seems like a ghostly, fictitious decoration, framing a dense network of canals and narrow pedestrian passages.
Despite the fact that these cities are considered the pearls of Italian urban planning of the Renaissance, they remained medieval in their planning structure. They are characterized by an intricate network of narrow streets that unexpectedly lead to random squares that are in no way connected with each other and do not play a significant role in the layout of the city. At the same time, it should be noted that the squares in these cities are beautiful in themselves, not only for the unmistakable proportions of the main structure and open space, but also for the immortal creations of Italian sculptors with which they are decorated. Their silhouettes especially emphasize the medievalism of these cities: the vertical lines of cathedrals above the picturesque, compact array of urban buildings.