Historical culinary excursion: what they ate and drank in the Middle Ages. Nutrition of Europeans in modern times Nutrition of Europeans from the 16th to the 18th centuries

Massimo Montanari. "Hunger and abundance.
History of food in Europe"

The book by the Italian historian was published in Italy in 1993 (we published it in 2009). Despite the small volume (only 210 pages), the work turned out to be very entertaining and informative. Many historical works devoted to the biography of Europe are one-sided: the authors pay the main attention to wars, religious issues and dynastic strife, forgetting about other aspects of the life of human populations. Montanari's book fills one of these gaps in European history related to nutrition.

Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you who you are - this is how Montanari begins his culinary-historical review. How was Roman civilization different from the barbarians? A lot, including food. Rome is a vegetarian culture. The main products consumed by a Roman citizen were wheat bread, olive oil and wine. The Romans ate meat, vegetables, and fish, but all these were secondary products. But without the first three, it is simply impossible to imagine Roman civilization. What was the main product of the German barbarians? - Pork! And the Germans drank mare's milk and beer (without hops).

In Rome, moderation in food was valued; among the Germans, the ability to eat as much meat as possible was valued. And what’s curious is that not only the Germans themselves lived well, but also their pigs. The ancient Germans' pigs, who were gaining weight, grew up in much more comfortable conditions than modern pigs: they grazed in the forests. And we are not talking about wild boars, but domestic pigs! In the early Middle Ages, at a certain stage, even forests were measured in pigs! The size of the forest land depended on how many pigs could feed there.

Some people who eat everything are very fond of referring to their ancestors and traditions: they say, my grandfather ate everything, my father ate everything, and I will eat everything! And go to one place with your diets! But in fact, our ancestors were not omnivores, and their diet was very limited. And our ancestors adhered to a separate diet: meat and bread (in various forms) were not mixed. The modern European tradition of combining meat and bread as staple foods is based on the symbiosis of the Roman and barbarian food systems, which arose only after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. And even then not immediately, and not in all parts of Europe.

It was very interesting to learn from the book that in Ancient Rome bread had to be wheat, and rye was considered a weed. Remember this when you go grocery shopping! It was only when the Roman Empire began to collapse that rye became a staple grain in Europe because it was much easier to grow. This is why rye bread is so popular in our country.

The decisive event in the history of European nutrition according to Montanari was associated with the abolition of free access rights to the forest for the majority of the population. These rights were usurped by the feudal lords. This circumstance led to a qualitative change in the nutrition of the lower strata, deprived of the opportunity to hunt forest game and raise pigs on forest food.

For most peasants, rye bread has become the main food since the 11th century, and only on the Mediterranean coast does wheat remain the main cereal crop.

Over the past two millennia, Europe has gone through various periods in terms of food supply. It is wrong to say that in the Middle Ages the population was starving, but in the Renaissance and Modern times the situation gets better. There is no such dependence. For example, the 12th-13th centuries in Western Europe (late Middle Ages) were a fairly favorable time. The economy is growing, and hunger strikes among the population are very rare. But in the 70s of the 13th century, an economic crisis began, and already at the beginning of the next century famine came to Europe. In the Pyrenees, up to a quarter of the population died out in 1302. And in 1347, a black rat showed up in Europe and brought the plague. It is believed that it was the long-term fasting that contributed to the crushing blow of the plague on the weakened population.

But life is like a zebra. After the plague epidemic, life in Europe becomes better, more fun and satisfying. There are much fewer eaters, and meat is once again becoming available to the general public. Especially a lot of meat products were consumed at that time in Germany, Poland, Sweden, England and the Netherlands. Even on the peasant table, this product began to be found quite often. But if the peasants were content mainly with meat from pigs, which were kept in a stall (access to the forest was closed to the peasants), then the city switched to beef and lamb. But they did not gorge themselves on meat everywhere in Europe - on the Mediterranean coast they still adhered to vegetarian dietary traditions - just as in Roman times. Hearty European times continued until the 16th century.

After reading Montanari’s book, it becomes clear why some now familiar food products ended up on the European menu.

The Catholic Church, which with its fast days spoiled the mood of the meat-eaters of that time, had a strong influence on the human diet of those times: they were forbidden to eat meat from 140 to 160 days a year! And the priests of that time did not achieve their goal through persuasion. Under Charlemagne, fast breakers faced the death penalty! But eating fish was allowed. And fish in such “lenten” conditions became a product that replaces meat, and thus its role in the diet increased sharply compared to ancient times. The trouble was that this product was perishable, but a solution was found here: they began to salt and dry the fish. The economies of entire European regions were based on fish procurement. And all because the priests went too far regarding fasting days.

What’s interesting is that Protestants disagreed with Catholics based on their attitude to food. Luther rejected the fasts with which the Catholic Church tormented the people. Unlike the Italians and other southerners, the meat-eating Germans found it difficult to go without meat during Lent. It is not surprising that the rebellion against the power of the pope found its support precisely in Germany and in those parts of Europe where meat was historically the No. 1 food.

During the Renaissance, other products that are now familiar to us, which Europeans had not previously consumed, appeared in Europe. Rice is widespread in Spain. Buckwheat became popular in Western Europe in the 17th century. The discovery of America led to the widespread cultivation of maize, which, however, was considered more of a fodder crop than a food crop. In the 18th century, potatoes conquered Europe.

It would seem that the variety of the table should improve the nutrition of the population, but it was the other way around. Most of the new products appeared as a replacement for traditional meat and bread, so the spread of new products was accompanied by a deterioration in the nutrition of the common people. From the mid-16th century, Europeans ate less and less meat, except in mountainous pastoral areas. This was facilitated by population growth, a ban on keeping livestock in the city due to increased urban density, and a reduction in trade with the East due to the Turks. First, bread comes to replace meat, but not wheat, but from a mixture of cereals. Later, bread will be replaced by potatoes and corn. The more bread in the diet, the stronger the impact of lean years on the population. And crop failures at that time become too frequent. In the 17th century, the European population goes through several severe famines.

Sugar came to Europe quite late: in the 14th-15th centuries. Sugar consumption was more common in Mediterranean countries. In the 16th century, sugar was a staple food, used for cooking but not for sweetening drinks. At this time, Europeans drink not tea and coffee, but “good old” wine and beer. And they drink a lot.

One or two liters of wine or several liters of beer per person per day was the norm for Europe at that time. They drank so much simply because they were thirsty. It must be taken into account that people at that time ate a lot of salted foods, and it was impossible to wash them down with plain water - at best, it was diluted with wine as an antiseptic. Medicinal properties were also attributed to wine. As documents show, patients drank it even in hospitals! Still, people from the distant past were in a number of aspects much more intelligent than the current generation. Our modern Russian “intellectuals” have gone so far as to equate beer and wine with vodka! And history shows that there is no harm from beer and wine, except for the benefits. They drank wine and beer “without drying out” in Europe, but for some reason Russia got drunk... With these very “intellectuals” in power.

Coffee and tea began to come into fashion only at the beginning of the 17th century, as did strong alcoholic drinks (vodka, rum, whiskey, gin). First, coffee came to Europe, borrowed from the Turks; they began to drink tea a little later. Both coffee and tea were elite drinks for a long time, but by the end of the 18th century in some countries they were already consumed by the broad masses. Both tea and coffee successfully replaced wine and beer in Europe. Our deputies believe that everything can be solved by prohibitions, and history shows us that one fashion (including in nutrition) is successfully replaced not by prohibitions, but by another fashion.

The 18th century in Europe is characterized by a sharp increase in population, which led to an agrotechnical revolution in agriculture: sown areas are not just expanding - the very way they are used is changing. The role of potatoes is growing, which, unlike grains, is less dependent on climate change (and even military action), and also makes it possible to feed more people on equal sown areas. For the same reason, there is an increase in corn production. This did not stop the population from starving, but the mass extinction of Europeans was no longer observed in the 18th century.

Unfortunately, you can't live on corn alone. The transition of the common people to this product led to the spread of the terrible disease pellagra, caused by a lack of nicotinic acid, on the continent. When the population did not have the opportunity to diversify their diet and survived only on corn, they were struck by pellagra. Montanari: "Pellagra followed the corn."

But potatoes or corn did not become the main food of the common population everywhere. In Central and Southern Italy, their place was taken by pasta (“pasta”). It was bread that could be stored for a very long time, which was indispensable during crop failures. The population of southern Italy did not starve, unlike those parts of Europe that depended on potatoes or corn. In Europe, pasta became known in the 12th century - in Sicily. And it was the Sicilians who were the first to be nicknamed “pasta people”. And since the 18th century, this “honorary” nickname passed to the Neapolitans.

A decisive change in the diet of ordinary Europeans occurred at the end of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution allowed people to remember meat again. By the end of the century, the British returned to the traditional meat table for German Europe, and all other Europeans (who did not fall into the Soviet zone of occupation) returned in the 50s of the 20th century. But such a return to a satisfying past concerns only Europe, not Russia. In principle, Montanari very rarely mentions our country - and this is understandable. It is like a tumor: not that it exists completely separately from Europe, but it cannot be called part of a healthy European body.

In Russia, they began to feed the population with meat after Montanari wrote his book - at the beginning of the 21st century, when the oil-for-food program began working at full capacity. But the joy did not last long. When Russia began to “get up from its knees,” it was decided to give up meat. And at the same time from cheeses, tomatoes and apples. To our guides and keepers of the bonds - everything, and to us - eternal fasting. These are traditional Russian values.

Every year there is a higher and higher level of preparation for medieval festivals. The most stringent requirements are imposed on the identity of a suit, shoes, tent, and household items. However, for a stronger immersion in the environment, it would be good to adhere to other rules of the eras. One of them is identical food. It happens that a reenactor spends money on the costume of a rich nobleman, selects his court (team), surroundings, and has buckwheat porridge in his pot and on the table.

What did the inhabitants of various classes of the city and village of the Middle Ages eat?

In the XI-XIII centuries. The food of most of the population of Western Europe was very monotonous. They especially consumed a lot of bread. Bread and wine (grape juice) were the main, popular food products of the unprivileged population of Europe. According to French researchers, in the X-XI centuries. secularists and monks consumed 1.6-1.7 kg of bread per day, which was washed down with large amounts of wine, grape juice or water. Peasants were often limited to 1 kg of bread and 1 liter of juice per day. The poorest drank fresh water, and to prevent it from going rotten, they put in it marsh plants containing ether - arum, calamus, etc. A wealthy city dweller in the late Middle Ages ate up to 1 kg of bread daily. The main European cereals during the Middle Ages were wheat and rye, of which the first predominated in Southern and Central Europe, the second in Northern Europe. Barley was extremely widespread. The main grain crops were significantly supplemented by spelled and millet (in the southern regions), oats (in the northern). In Southern Europe, they mainly consumed wheat bread, in Northern Europe, barley bread, and in Eastern Europe, rye bread. For a long time, bread products were unleavened flatbreads (bread in the form of a loaf and loaves of bread began to be baked only towards the end of the Middle Ages). The cakes were hard and dry because they were baked without yeast. Barley cakes lasted longer than others, so warriors (including crusading knights) and wanderers preferred to take them on the road.

Medieval mobile bread maker 1465-1475. Most ovens were naturally stationary.	The feast in Matsievsky's Bible (B. M. 1240-1250) looks very modest. Or the features of the image. Perhaps in the middle of the 13th century it was difficult to find food.
They kill a bull with a hammer. “Book of Trecento Drawings” Tacuina sanitatis Casanatense 4182 (XIV century)	Fish seller. “Book of Trecento Drawings” Tacuina sanitatis Casanatense 4182 (XIV century)
Feast, page detail January, Book of Hours of the Limburg Brothers, cycle "Seasons". 1410-1411	Vegetable vendor. Hood. Joachim Beuckelaer (1533-74)
Dance among the eggs, 1552. art. Aertsen Pieter	Kitchen interior from the parable of the feast, 1605. Hood. Joachim Wtewael
Trader fructati 1580. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)	Fishwife. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)
Kitchen. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)	Game shop, 1618-1621. Hood. Franz Snyders Franz Snyders (with Jan Wildens)

The bread of the poor was different from the bread of the rich. The first one was mainly rye and of low quality. On the table of the rich, wheat bread made from sifted flour was common. Obviously, the peasants, even if they grew wheat, almost did not know the taste of wheat bread. Their lot was rye bread made from poorly ground flour. Often, bread was replaced with flatbreads made from flour of other cereals, or even from chestnuts, which played the role of a very important food resource in Southern Europe (before the advent of potatoes). In times of famine, the poor added acorns and roots to their bread.

The next most frequently consumed foods after bread and grape juice (or wine) were salads and vinaigrettes. Although their components were different than in our time. The main vegetable plant was turnip. It has been used since the 6th century. in raw, boiled and mushy form. Turnips were always included in the daily menu. After the turnip came the radish. In Northern Europe, rutabaga and cabbage were added to almost every dish. In the East - horseradish, in the South - lentils, peas, beans of different varieties. They even baked bread from peas. Stews were usually made with peas or beans.

The range of medieval garden crops differed from the modern one. In use were asparagus, boudiak, kupena, which were added to the salad; quinoa, potashnik, kudryavets - mixed in vinaigrette; sorrel, nettle, hogweed - added to the soup. Bearberry, knotweed, mint and bison were chewed raw.

Carrots and beets entered the diet only in the 16th century.

The most common fruit crops in the Middle Ages were apple and gooseberry. In fact, until the end of the fifteenth century. The range of vegetables and fruits grown in European gardens and gardens did not change significantly compared to the Roman era. But, thanks to the Arabs, Europeans of the Middle Ages became acquainted with citrus fruits: oranges and lemons. Almonds came from Egypt, and apricots came from the East (after the Crusades).

In addition to bread, they ate a lot of cereals. In the North - barley, in the East - rye grout, in the South - semolina. Buckwheat was almost never sown in the Middle Ages. Very common crops were millet and spelt. Millet is the oldest grain in Europe; millet cakes and millet porridge were made from it. Noodles were made from unpretentious spelt, which grew almost everywhere and was not afraid of the vagaries of the weather. Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, sunflowers and much more, known today, were not yet known to medieval people.

The diet of ordinary townspeople and peasants differed from the modern diet in that it contained insufficient protein. About 60% of the diet (if not more for certain low-income groups of the population) was carbohydrates: bread, flatbreads, and various cereals. The lack of nutritional value of food was compensated for by quantity. People ate only when their stomachs were full. And the feeling of fullness was usually associated with heaviness in the stomach. Meat was consumed relatively rarely, mainly during holidays. True, the table of noble lords, clergy and city aristocracy was very plentiful and varied.

There have always been differences in the diet of the “top” and “bottom” of society. The former were not disadvantaged in meat dishes, primarily due to the prevalence of hunting, since there was still quite a lot of game in the forests of the medieval West at that time. There were bears, wolverines, deer, wild boars, roe deer, aurochs, bison, and hares; of birds - black grouse, partridges, wood grouse, bustards, wild geese, ducks, etc. According to archaeologists, medieval people ate the meat of birds such as crane, eagle, magpie, rook, heron, and bittern. Small birds from the order passerines were considered a delicacy. Chopped starlings and tits were added to vegetable salads. Fried kings and shrikes were served cold. Orioles and flycatchers were baked, wagtails were stewed, swallows and larks were stuffed into pies. The more beautiful the bird was, the more delicious the dish made from it was considered. For example, nightingale tongue pate was prepared only on major holidays by royal or ducal chefs. At the same time, significantly more animals were exterminated than could be eaten or stored for future use, and, as a rule, most of the meat of wild animals simply disappeared due to the impossibility of preserving it. Therefore, by the end of the Middle Ages, hunting could no longer be relied upon as a reliable means of subsistence. Secondly, the table of a noble person could always be replenished at the expense of the city market (the market in Paris was especially famous for its abundance), where one could buy a wide variety of products - from game to fine wines and fruits. In addition to game, the meat of domestic birds and animals was consumed - pork (for fattening pigs, a part of the forest was usually fenced off and wild boars were driven there), lamb, goat meat; meat of geese and chickens. The balance of meat and plant foods depended not only on geographical, economic and social, but also on the religious conditions of society. As is known, a total of about half of the year (166 days) in the Middle Ages consisted of fasting days associated with four main and weekly (Wednesday, Friday, Saturday) fasts. On these days, eating meat and meat and dairy products was forbidden with greater or lesser severity. Exceptions were made only for the seriously ill, women in labor, and Jews. In the Mediterranean region, less meat was consumed than in Northern Europe. The hot climate of the Mediterranean probably had an effect. But he’s not the only one. Due to the traditional lack of feed, grazing, etc. Fewer livestock were raised there. The highest meat consumption in Europe during the late Middle Ages was in Hungary: on average about 80 kg per year. In Italy, in Florence, for example, about 50 kg. In Siena 30 kg in the 15th century. In Central and Eastern Europe they ate more beef and pork. In England, Spain, Southern France and Italy - lamb. Pigeons were bred specifically for food. City dwellers ate more meat than peasants. Of all the types of food consumed at that time, it was mainly pork that was easily digestible; other foods often contributed to indigestion. Probably for this reason, the type of a fat, puffy person, outwardly quite portly, but in reality simply poorly nourished and suffering from unhealthy obesity, became widespread.

Fish noticeably supplemented and diversified the table of medieval people (especially on days of numerous long fasts) - fresh (they ate raw or half-raw fish mainly in winter, when there was a lack of greens and vitamins), but especially smoked, dried, dried or salted (they ate such fish on the road, just like flatbreads). For residents of the sea coast, fish and seafood constituted almost the main food products. The Baltic and North Sea were fed with herring, the Atlantic with cod and mackerel, the Mediterranean with tuna and sardines. Far from the sea, the waters of large and small rivers and lakes served as a source of rich fish resources. Fish, less than meat, was the privilege of the rich. But if the food of the poor was cheap local fish, then the rich could afford to feast on “noble” fish brought from afar.

For a long time, mass salting of fish was hampered by a shortage of salt, which was a very expensive product in those days. Rock salt was rarely mined; salt-containing sources were more often used: salt water was evaporated in salt works, and then the salt was pressed into cakes, which were sold at a high price. Sometimes these pieces of salt - of course, this primarily concerns the early Middle Ages - played the role of money. But even later, housewives took care of every pinch of salt, so it was not easy to salt a lot of fish. The lack of salt was partly compensated by the use of spices - cloves, pepper, cinnamon, laurel, nutmeg and many others. etc. Pepper and cinnamon were brought from the East, and they were very expensive, because ordinary people could not afford them. The common people often ate mustard, dill, caraway seeds, onions, and garlic that grew everywhere. The widespread use of spices can be explained not only by the gastronomic tastes of the era, but it was also prestigious. In addition, spices were used to diversify dishes and, if possible, hide the bad smell of meat, fish, and poultry, which were difficult to keep fresh in the Middle Ages. And finally, the abundance of spices put into sauces and gravies compensated for poor processing of food and roughness of dishes. At the same time, very often spices changed the original taste of food and caused a strong burning sensation in the stomach.

In the XI-XIII centuries. medieval man rarely ate dairy products and consumed little fat. The main sources of vegetable fat for a long time were flax and hemp (olive oil was common in Greece and the Middle East; north of the Alps it was practically unknown); animal - pig. It was noted that fats of vegetable origin were more common in the south of Europe, and animal fats in the north. Vegetable oil was also produced from pistachios, almonds, walnuts and pine nuts, chestnuts and mustard.

The inhabitants of the mountains (especially in Switzerland) made cheese from milk, and the inhabitants of the plains made cottage cheese. Sour milk was used to make curdled milk. Very rarely, milk was used to make sour cream and butter. Animal oil in general was an extraordinary luxury, and was constantly on the table only of kings, emperors, and the highest nobility. For a long time, Europe was limited in sweets; sugar appeared in Europe thanks to the Arabs and until the 16th century. was considered a luxury. It was obtained from sugar cane and production was expensive and labor intensive. Therefore, sugar was available only to wealthy segments of society.

Of course, the food supply largely depended on the natural, climatic and weather conditions of a particular area. Any whim of nature (drought, heavy rains, early frosts, storms, etc.) took the peasant’s economy out of its normal rhythm and could lead to famine, the fear of which Europeans experienced throughout the Middle Ages. Therefore, it is no coincidence that throughout the Middle Ages many medieval authors constantly spoke about the threat of famine. For example, an empty stomach became a constant theme in the medieval novel about the fox Renard. In the Middle Ages, when the threat of hunger always lurked for a person, the main advantage of food and table was satiety and abundance. On holiday it was necessary to eat so much that on hungry days there would be something to remember. Therefore, for a wedding in the village, the family slaughtered the last cattle and cleaned the cellar to the ground. On weekdays, a piece of bacon with bread was considered “royal food” by the English commoner, and some Italian sharecropper limited himself to a piece of bread with cheese and an onion. In general, as F. Braudel points out, during the late Middle Ages the average weight was limited to 2 thousand calories per day and only the upper strata of society “reached” the needs of a modern person (it is defined as 3.5 – 5 thousand calories). In the Middle Ages they usually ate twice a day. From those times, a funny saying has been preserved that angels need food once a day, people twice, and animals three times. They ate at different hours than now. The peasants had breakfast no later than 6 o’clock in the morning (it is no coincidence that breakfast in German was called “frustük”, i.e. “early piece”, the French name for breakfast “dezhene” and the Italian name “dijune” (early) are similar in meaning to it. ) In the morning we ate most of the day's ration in order to work better. During the day the soup came (“soupE” in France, “sopper” (soup food) in England, “mittag” (midday) in Germany), and people ate their afternoon meal. By evening the work was over - there was no need to eat. As soon as it got dark, the ordinary people of the village and city went to bed. Over time, the nobility imposed its food tradition on the entire society: breakfast moved closer to noon, lunch was wedged into the middle of the day, and dinner moved towards the evening.

At the end of the 15th century, the first consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries began to affect the food of Europeans. After the discovery of the New World, pumpkin, zucchini, Mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes (yams), beans, peppers, cocoa, coffee, as well as corn (maize), potatoes, tomatoes, sunflowers, which were brought by the Spaniards and British from America, appeared in the diet of Europeans. at the beginning of the sixteenth century.

Among drinks, grape wine traditionally occupied the first place - and not only because Europeans happily indulged in the pleasures of Bacchus. The consumption of wine was forced by the poor quality of water, which, as a rule, was not boiled and which, due to the fact that nothing was known about pathogenic microbes, caused stomach diseases. They drank a lot of wine, according to some researchers, up to 1.5 liters per day. Even children were given wine. Wine was necessary not only for meals, but also for preparing medicines. Along with olive oil, it was considered a good solvent. Wine was also used for church needs, during the liturgy, and grape must satisfied the needs of medieval people for sweets. But if the bulk of the population resorted to local wine, often of poor quality, then the upper strata of society ordered fine wines from distant countries. In the late Middle Ages, Cypriot, Rhine, Moselle, Tokay wines, and Malvasia enjoyed a high reputation. At a later time - port, Madeira, sherry, Malaga. In the south they preferred natural wines, in the north of Europe, in cooler climates, fortified ones. Over time, they became addicted to vodka and alcohol (they learned to make alcohol in distillers around 1100, but for a long time the production of alcohol was in the hands of pharmacists, who considered alcohol as a medicine that gave a feeling of “warmth and confidence”), who for a long time treated it as medicine. At the end of the fifteenth century. This “medicine” appealed to so many citizens that the Nuremberg authorities were forced to ban the sale of alcohol on holidays. In the 14th century Italian liqueur appeared, and in the same century they learned to make alcohol from fermented grain.

Grape crush. Pergola training, 1385 Bologne, Niccolo-student, Forli.	Brewer at work. the housebook of the brother's endowment of the family Mendel 1425.
Tavern Party, Flanders 1455	Good and bad manners. Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, Bruges 1475

A truly popular drink, especially north of the Alps, was beer, which even the nobility did not refuse. The best beer was brewed from sprouted barley (malt) with the addition of hops (by the way, the use of hops for brewing was precisely a discovery of the Middle Ages, the first reliable mention of it dates back to the 12th century; in general, barley beer (mash) was known in ancient times) and what some cereal. From the 12th century beer is mentioned constantly. Barley beer (ale) was especially popular in England, but brewing based on the use of hops came here from the continent only around 1400. In terms of quantity, beer consumption was approximately the same as wine, i.e. 1.5 liters daily. In Northern France, beer competed with cider, which came into especially widespread use from the end of the 15th century. and enjoyed success mainly among the common people.

From the second half of the 16th century. chocolate appeared in Europe; in the first half of the seventeenth century. - coffee and tea, because they cannot be considered “medieval” drinks.

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