What did the Arabs contribute to world culture? Natural scientific achievements of medieval Arab culture

What is the Arab world and how did it develop? This article will discuss its culture and the development of science, history and peculiarities of its worldview. What was it like several centuries ago and what does the Arab world look like today? Which ones belong to it today?

The essence of the concept of "Arab world"

This concept refers to a specific geographical region, consisting of the countries of northern and eastern Africa, the Middle East, inhabited by Arabs (a group of peoples). In each of them, Arabic is the official language (or one of the official ones, as in Somalia).

The total area of ​​the Arab world is approximately 13 million km2, making it the second largest geolinguistic unit on the planet (after Russia).

The Arab world should not be confused with the Muslim world, which is used exclusively in a religious context, nor with the international organization called the Arab League, created in 1945.

Geography of the Arab world

Which states of the planet are usually included in the Arab world? The photo below gives a general idea of ​​its geography and structure.

So, the Arab world includes 23 states. Moreover, two of them are partially not recognized by the international community (they are marked with asterisks in the list below). These states are home to about 345 million people, which is no more than 5% of the total world population.

All countries of the Arab world are listed below, in order of decreasing number of their inhabitants. This:

1. Egypt.
2. Morocco.
3. Algeria.
4. Sudan.
5. Saudi Arabia.
6. Iraq.
7. Yemen.
8. Syria.
9. Tunisia.
10. Somalia.
11. Jordan.
12. Libya.
13. Lebanon.
14. Palestine*.
15. Mauritania.
16. Oman.
17. Kuwait.
18. Qatar.
19. Comoros.
20. Bahrain.
21. Djibouti.
22. West Sahara*.

The largest cities in the Arab world are Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca, Rabat, Algiers, Riyadh, Khartoum, Alexandria.

Essay on the ancient history of the Arab world

The history of the development of the Arab world began long before the emergence of Islam. In those ancient times, the peoples who are today an integral part of this world still communicated in their own languages ​​(although they were related to Arabic). We can draw information about what the history of the Arab world was like in ancient times from Byzantine or ancient Roman sources. Of course, looking through the prism of time can be quite distorted.

The ancient Arab world was perceived by highly developed states (Iran, the Roman and Byzantine Empire) as poor and semi-savage. In their minds, it was a desert land with a small and nomadic population. In fact, nomads constituted an overwhelming minority, and most of the Arabs led a sedentary lifestyle, gravitating to the valleys of small rivers and oases. After the domestication of the camel, caravan trade began to develop here, which for many inhabitants of the planet became a standard (template) image of the Arab world.

The first beginnings of statehood arose in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Even earlier, according to historians, the ancient state of Yemen arose in the south of the peninsula. However, contacts of other powers with this formation were minimal due to the presence of a huge desert of several thousand kilometers.

The Arab-Muslim world and its history are well described in the book "History of Arab Civilization" by Gustave Le Bon. It was published in 1884, it was translated into many languages ​​of the world, including Russian. The book is based on the author's independent travels throughout the Middle East and North Africa.

The Arab World in the Middle Ages

In the 6th century, Arabs already made up the majority of the population of the Arabian Peninsula. Soon the Islamic religion was born here, after which the Arab conquests began. In the 7th century, a new state formation began to take shape - the Arab Caliphate, which spread over vast expanses from Hindustan to the Atlantic, from the Sahara to the Caspian Sea.

Numerous tribes and peoples of northern Africa very quickly assimilated into Arab culture, easily adopting their language and religion. In turn, the Arabs absorbed some elements of their culture.

If in Europe the Middle Ages were marked by the decline of science, then in the Arab world it was actively developing at that time. This applied to many of its industries. Algebra, psychology, astronomy, chemistry, geography and medicine reached their maximum development in the medieval Arab world.

The Arab Caliphate lasted for a relatively long time. In the 10th century, the processes of feudal fragmentation of the great power began. Ultimately, the once united Arab Caliphate broke up into many separate countries. Most of them in the 16th century became part of the next empire - the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, the lands of the Arab world became colonies of European states - Britain, France, Spain and Italy. Today, they have all become independent and sovereign countries again.

Features of the culture of the Arab world

The culture of the Arab world cannot be imagined without the Islamic religion, which has become an integral part of it. Thus, unshakable faith in Allah, reverence for the Prophet Muhammad, fasting and daily prayers, as well as pilgrimage to Mecca (the main shrine for every Muslim) are the main “pillars” of the religious life of all residents of the Arab world. Mecca, by the way, was a holy place for the Arabs back in pre-Islamic times.

Islam, according to researchers, is in many ways similar to Protestantism. In particular, he also does not condemn wealth, and human commercial activities are assessed from a moral point of view.

In the Middle Ages, a huge number of works on history were written in Arabic: chronicles, chronicles, biographical dictionaries, etc. Muslim culture treated (and still treats) the depiction of words with special trepidation. The so-called Arabic script is not just calligraphic writing. The beauty of written letters among the Arabs is equated with the ideal beauty of the human body.

The traditions of Arab architecture are no less interesting and worthy of attention. The classic type of Muslim temple with mosques was formed in the 7th century. It is a closed (dead) rectangular courtyard, inside of which there is a gallery of arches. In the part of the courtyard that faces Mecca, a luxuriously decorated and spacious prayer hall was built, topped with a spherical dome. As a rule, one or several sharp towers (minarets) rise above the temple, which are designed to call Muslims to prayer.

Among the most famous monuments of Arab architecture are those in Syrian Damascus (8th century), as well as the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Egyptian Cairo, the architectural elements of which are lavishly decorated with beautiful floral patterns.

There are no gilded icons or any images or paintings in Muslim temples. But the walls and arches of the mosques are decorated with elegant arabesques. This is a traditional Arabic design consisting of geometric patterns and floral designs (it should be noted that artistic depictions of animals and people are considered blasphemous in Muslim culture). Arabesques, according to European cultural experts, are “afraid of emptiness.” They completely cover the surface and exclude the presence of any colored background.

Philosophy and literature

Very closely related to the Islamic religion. One of the most famous Muslim philosophers is the thinker and physician Ibn Sina (980 - 1037). He is considered the author of no less than 450 works on medicine, philosophy, logic, arithmetic and other fields of knowledge.

The most famous work of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is “The Canon of Medicine”. Texts from this book were used for many centuries in various universities in Europe. Another of his works, The Book of Healing, also significantly influenced the development of Arab philosophical thought.

The most famous literary monument of the medieval Arab world is the collection of fairy tales and stories "A Thousand and One Nights". In this book, researchers discovered elements of pre-Islamic Indian and Persian stories. Over the centuries, the composition of this collection changed, and it acquired its final form only in the 14th century.

Development of science in the modern Arab world

During the Middle Ages, the Arab world occupied a leading position on the planet in the field of scientific achievements and discoveries. It was Muslim scientists who “gave” algebra to the world and made a huge leap in the development of biology, medicine, astronomy and physics.

However, today the countries of the Arab world pay catastrophically little attention to science and education. Today, there are just over a thousand universities in these countries, and only 312 of them employ scientists who publish their articles in scientific journals. In history, only two Muslims have won the Nobel Prize in science.

What is the reason for such a striking contrast between “then” and “now”?

Historians do not have a single answer to this question. Most of them explain this decline in science by the feudal fragmentation of the once united Arab power (the Caliphate), as well as the emergence of various Islamic schools, which provoked more and more disagreements and conflicts. Another reason may be that the Arabs know their own history quite poorly and are not proud of the great successes of their ancestors.

Wars and terrorism in the modern Arab world

Why are the Arabs fighting? The Islamists themselves claim that in this way they are trying to restore the former power of the Arab world and gain independence from Western countries.

It is important to note that the main holy book of Muslims, the Koran, does not deny the possibility of seizing foreign territories and imposing tribute on the captured lands (the eighth sura “Prey” speaks about this). In addition, it has always been much easier to spread one's religion with the help of weapons.

Since ancient times, the Arabs have become famous as brave and rather cruel warriors. Neither the Persians nor the Romans risked fighting with them. And desert Arabia did not attract much attention from large empires. However, Arab soldiers were gladly accepted into service in the Roman troops.

After the end of the First World War, the Arab-Muslim civilization plunged into a deep crisis, which historians compare with the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century in Europe. It is obvious that any such crisis sooner or later ends with a surge of radical sentiments and active impulses to revive and return the “golden age” in one’s history. The same processes are happening today in the Arab world. Thus, in Africa, the terrorist organization in Syria and Iraq - ISIS - is rampant. The aggressive activities of the latter entity already go far beyond the boundaries of Muslim states.

The modern Arab world is tired of wars, conflicts and clashes. But no one knows for sure how to put out this “fire.”

Saudi Arabia

Today, Saudi Arabia is often called the heart of the Arab-Muslim world. Here are the main shrines of Islam - the cities of Mecca and Medina. The main (and, in fact, the only) religion in this state is Islam. Representatives of other religions are allowed to enter Saudi Arabia, but they may not be allowed into Mecca or Medina. Also, “tourists” are strictly prohibited from displaying any symbols of another faith in the country (for example, wearing crosses, etc.).

In Saudi Arabia, there is even a special “religious” police whose purpose is to suppress possible violations of Islamic law. Religious criminals will face appropriate punishment - from a fine to execution.

Despite all of the above, Saudi diplomats are actively working on the world stage in the interests of protecting Islam and maintaining partnerships with Western countries. The state has difficult relations with Iran, which also lays claim to leadership in the region.

Syrian Arab Republic

Syria is another important center of the Arab world. At one time (under the Umayyads), the capital of the Arab Caliphate was located in the city of Damascus. Today, a bloody civil war continues in the country (since 2011). Westerners often criticize Syria, accusing its leadership of violating human rights, using torture and significantly restricting freedom of speech.

About 85% are Muslim. However, the “other believers” always felt free and quite comfortable here. The laws of the Koran on the territory of the country are perceived by its inhabitants rather as traditions.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The largest country (by population) in the Arab world is Egypt. 98% of its inhabitants are Arabs, 90% profess Islam (Sunni movement). Egypt has a huge number of tombs with Muslim saints, which attract thousands of pilgrims on religious holidays.

Islam in modern Egypt has a significant impact on the life of society. However, Muslim laws here have been significantly relaxed and adjusted to the realities of the 21st century. It is interesting to note that most of the ideologists of so-called “radical Islam” were educated at Cairo University.

Finally...

The Arab world refers to a distinct historical region roughly encompassing the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. It geographically includes 23 modern states.

The culture of the Arab world is specific and very closely related to the traditions and canons of Islam. The modern realities of this region are conservatism, poor development of science and education, the spread of radical ideas and terrorism.

It should be emphasized that Islam significantly contributed to the development of philosophy, art, humanities and natural sciences, as well as the creation of a sophisticated culture (it is no coincidence that the 7th-8th centuries are called the era of classicism). The caliphs, emirs and governors of the various provinces of the colossal Muslim empire were inveterate guardians of science and philosophy, patrons of art and fine literature, especially poetry. They were the initiators and patrons of famous scientific institutes - the then universities and academies of sciences, with which were associated huge libraries for those times, numbering many hundreds of thousands of volumes of religious and secular works. The main centers of medieval culture and science were located in Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba and other cities of the Arab-Muslim caliphate. It can be said that the Arab-Muslim culture, as follows from the phrase itself, bears the stamp of Islam and Arabism with its spirit of freedom and tolerance, which was preserved during the era of Arab hegemony in the Arab-Muslim society and its state - the caliphate. We should also not forget that in medieval Arab-Muslim culture, socio-political ideas were intensively developed, oriented towards the search for a supra-religious ideal, involving the destruction of property and religious antagonisms: the search for this kind of social utopian ideal, for obvious reasons, caused a certain reaction from orthodox Islam , as a result of which Sufism appeared.

An essential element of Arab-Muslim culture is the Arabic language, which is inextricably linked with the Koran. After all, the holy book of Islam, according to devout Muslims, was given to the Prophet Muhammad in “revelation” in Arabic (and many of them believe that it is in this form that its original is kept near the throne of the Almighty). This began the interaction of these two essential components of Arab-Muslim culture. Thus, under the influence of the need to comment on the Koran, philological studies of the Arabic language developed very strongly. In turn, the Koran contributed to expanding the sphere of distribution and strengthening the position of the Arabic language wherever Arabs and representatives of other nations converted to Islam appeared. Because all Muslims, regardless of their origin, are obliged to quote the Koran in Arabic, know it and understand it. And just as the Arabs (and Muslims) considered it a “miracle” that the Koran was presented to the world in Arabic, so it is a “miracle” that we see the amazing development of the Arabic language, which from the language of the Bedouins of desert Arabia in less than a century turned into the official language of scientists and philosophers.

When simple Bedouins emerged from the Arabian desert in the first half of the 7th century. to conquer the neighboring countries of the East and West, they took with them their language, the language of ancient Arabic poetry, the language of the Koran. It was still harsh, not processed by philologists, but potentially rich for further development. They carried with them their religion - Islam, which rallied them into a single fighting system and united them ideologically. The Arabic language and the Koran are two main elements of the emerging new Arab-Muslim civilization and culture: science, philosophy, art and other manifestations of Arab and Muslim culture bear the imprint of these two factors.

From the beginning of its development, in the classical era, in the centuries of brilliant development (IX-XII centuries) and in the post-classical era (XIII-XIV centuries), Arab-Muslim culture was at a high level, leaving far behind the then European science and culture . Arabs, Persians and representatives of other Islamized peoples took part in the creation and development of this culture as members of a single great Muslim society. Its successful development was facilitated by the fact that Arabic was a single language that was used by all Muslim scientists, regardless of their origin, and not just Arabs, when presenting their works. It was in this language that almost all scientific, philosophical and literary works were written, not to mention the religious and legal works that were created in the region of Islam during the classical era of Arab-Muslim culture. It should be added that the Arabic alphabet was used as an ornamental motif in Muslim art and architecture, especially in sacred architecture.

The first centers of science in the Muslim world were mosques - unique universities, because they taught all religious and secular sciences. Some of them gained great fame in the history of Arab-Muslim science as genuine universities. Suffice it to recall the great Umayyad mosque in Damascus (founded in 732), the famous Cairo Al-Azhar mosque, known in the West, and others. Islam contributed to the flourishing of science, because the Prophet Muhammad said: “Contemplation of scientists is equivalent to prayer,” and his nephew Ali said: “Get knowledge: it will decorate you if you are rich, and feed you if you are poor.” The saying “books are the gardens of scholars” also deserves attention.

The enormous flowering of science and philosophy, literature and art occurred primarily in the first period of the rule of the Abassid dynasty with its capital in Baghdad. Already from the end of the 8th century. Intensive work began on translating the most important Greek, Persian and Indian works into Arabic. The famous enlightened caliph al-Mamun (813-833) especially encouraged science and scientists and allowed freedom of thought. It was in Baghdad in the VIII-X centuries. A genuine enthusiasm for science was born. “The search for knowledge” has become, as it were, a need for the broad masses of Islamic adherents, according to the hadiths cited above. Arab thinkers appeared who brought ancient scientific and philosophical achievements of other peoples into the treasury of Arab-Muslim culture, but also advanced science and philosophy with their original creativity.

Not only in the Arab East, but also in the Arab West, in Arab Spain, called Andalusia, science, philosophy, literature and art developed brilliantly under the patronage of the Umayyad caliphs from Cordoba, and then their successors, the emirs - rulers of small states. Cordoba, the capital of the "Spanish" Umayyads, became famous as a center of refined culture, rivaling the Baghdad of the Abassids. Along with Cordoba, other centers of high culture were also known: Seville, Toledo, Gromada. Scientists from Muslim countries of the East, where science and philosophy have been established since the 12th century. began to decline, and scientists from Italy, France and England arrived in these cultural centers to study such secular sciences as astronomy, medicine, geography and other natural sciences.

In this case, Arab-Muslim culture is seen as intermediate between the cultures of the East and West. The Arab Caliphate included large cultural centers of the Middle East, in which the thousand-year experience of the urban culture of Sumer, Akkad, ancient Egypt, etc. was concentrated. All cultural values, crystallized over the millennia by various eastern civilizations and Hellenism, were mastered by the Arabs and expressed in Arabic and transferred to Western Europe. The defining features imparted by the Muslim East to the culture of Western Europe were scientificity and aspiration for the joys and beauty of reality. The culture of the Muslim Middle Ages, thus, not only preceded the culture of the Renaissance in many of its aspects, but also directly prepared its emergence in the era called by the humanists of the 15th century. the medieval era. In the period between the 12th century. and during the Renaissance, the works of Arab scholars in all fields of knowledge were translated and rewritten in Spain, Sicily and Syria, thanks to which most of them became available in Latin translation. Despite the comparatively low level of translation and scholarship in the West at the time, these Latin texts contributed to the revival of the thirst for knowledge in Western Europe during the late Middle Ages. The question arises: what is the reason for the flourishing of scientific knowledge in Arab-Muslim culture? The following factors played a significant role in this. First of all, it should be borne in mind that Islam was based on concern for the faithful in this earthly world, and various scientific disciplines provided significant assistance here. Exact sciences, mathematics and astronomy, as well as medicine and pharmacology were very useful for the development of civilization, because they increased the standard of living of the population and did not threaten the ideology of Islam. All this led to the development of scientific disciplines without any special obstacles, to their achievement of a high level.

In the field of exact sciences, the achievements of Arab scientists were enormous. It is common knowledge that the Arabic counting system, whose roots go back to India, was adopted and spread in Europe. Arab scientists (Muhammad al-Khorezmi and others) made a great contribution to the development of algebra, spherical trigonometry, mathematical physics, optics, astronomy and other scientific disciplines. Astronomy and astrology have been very popular among Arabs for a long time, even in the pre-Islamic era; accepted by Islam, they received widespread support from Muslim rulers.

Chemistry reached a high level of development among the Arabs. Jabar Ibn Hayyan from Kufa, the creator of the foundations of experimental chemistry, became famous. He dealt not only with problems of the theory of chemistry, but also in his numerous experimental studies sought to obtain data for practical application in the processes of steel smelting, dyeing fabrics and leather, glass production, etc. In general, we can say that Arab scientists in the field of chemistry discovered sulfur oxide , nitric oxide, silver nitrate and other compounds, as well as distillation and crystallization.

Medicine among the Arabs had a very high level; its achievements in various fields nourished European medicine for a long time. One of the first famous doctors, ar-Razi (9th century) was the greatest clinician in the world of Islam; many of his works are real medical encyclopedias. A major encyclopedia in the field of medicine is the “Canon of Medicine” by the famous Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The greatest surgeon of the Arab world, al-Zahrawi, raised surgery to the rank of an independent science; his most important treatise “Tashrif” laid the foundation for illustrated works on surgery. He began to use antiseptics in the treatment of wounds and skin lesions, invented threads for surgical sutures, as well as about 200 surgical instruments, which were subsequently used by surgeons in both the Muslim and Christian worlds. Another famous medical pioneer was Ibn Zuhr (Avenzohar), one of the leading Arab doctors in Spain (1094-1160). He was the first to describe pneumonia, stomach cancer, etc.; he is considered a harbinger of experimental medicine.

We also owe to Arab scientists the creation of pharmacy as a recognized profession; pharmacology has become an independent science, independent of medicine, although related to it. They attached great importance to chemotherapy; many medicinal herbs from the Arab pharmacopoeia are still used in treatment: senna, knotweed, etc. Arab geographers and naturalists enriched zoology and botany by studying the flora and fauna of many countries.

The Arab art of healing knew hydrotherapy, psychotherapy and therapeutic diet. It should be noted that many hospitals were built in the Arab world, including special hospitals for the mentally ill; often these hospitals were associated with scientific institutions. Usually, in accordance with the tradition of Arab-Muslim construction, a mosque, a hospital and a school or other public institutions were built in a new city that contributed to the physical and spiritual health of a person. It can be said that Arab scientists replenished the sum of human knowledge with new and original information discovered in the field of natural science and medicine, thereby enriching all of humanity.

Of interest is also the philosophical tradition of the Muslim East, which has two components - Hellenism and Islam, which determines its special features. After all, all types of knowledge, all disciplines for which Arab classical thought recognized the right to exist, received religious understanding thanks to the Koran. For the Koran not only affirmed the unity of Allah, judge and creator, as stated in the revelations of the Prophet Muhammad, not only established a religious connection between the believer and his creator-benefactor, but also “gave impetus to tireless creative search in all areas of knowledge. It should be taken into account and that specialization in science has never prevented Arab scientists and thinkers from relating different disciplines to each other and connecting different fields of knowledge into a single whole.

All this must be kept in mind when considering Arab-Muslim philosophy, which clearly differed from the strictly religious aspect of classical Islam. Moreover, it even asserted itself as the visible opposite of this aspect, as evidenced by the constant differences in views on the respective roles of reason and faith, the division between religious and rational knowledge, between rational judgments and judgments of canonical (religious) law. However, philosophy actually intertwined with theology when it came to ethics, politics and metaphysics, just as canon law used the fields of knowledge that philosophers dealt with: logic, mathematics, rhetoric, natural sciences. The interpenetration of philosophy and theology can be observed in the works of the Mu'tazilites, supporters of reason in all areas, including religion, as well as in the works of such humanists as al-Jahiz. This trend towards synthesis can be seen even more clearly in the 10th century. in the works of grammarians, jurists, theologians, writers, physicians and such encyclopedists as the “Brothers of Purity”. A striking example of such a tendency towards synthesis is the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”, which reflect the thinking of the people, revealing their desires, beliefs and ideas. This connection between the humanities and literature is found in the works of a number of authors, in particular in the works of the great scientist al-Biruni (d. 1048), whose philosophy in many respects is remarkably reminiscent of the philosophy of the 20th century.

The process of interpenetration of philosophy and theology was at the same time characterized by a constant clash of two main approaches - rationalistic, which continued the traditions of the Greek 1; thought, and traditional, which consisted in the direct interpretation of sacred texts (the Koran and hadith). Yet many thinkers have not followed such a distinction in their search. Often these were outstanding philosophers, for example, Ibn Sina (Avicenna, d. 1 1037), Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), Ibn Khaldun (d. 1 1406). The philosophical thought of Ibn Sina had a strong influence on the philosophy of the Muslim East, while the philosophical thought of Averroes left a deep imprint on medieval European philosophy, where Averroism was a very important philosophical movement. In general, it can be said that Arab thinkers and scientists had a tremendous influence on the culture of the West, especially in such fields of knowledge as mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy.

Arab-Muslim culture did not create the plastic arts - painting and sculpture in the European or ancient understanding of art. After all, Islam had a negative attitude towards the depiction of any living creature in painting and sculpture, so they were represented by ornamental, abstract motifs. In other words, the equivalents of plastic arts in Arab-Muslim culture were artistic calligraphy and miniature painting. The art of calligraphy in the world of Islam was considered the most noble art, and calligraphers had their own “academies” and were highly respected.

It should be noted that the abstractness of Muslim art is far from modern abstractionism. Contemporary artists find in abstraction the answer to irrational subconscious impulses; for the Muslim artist, abstract painting directly reflects unity in diversity. Muslim art consists of reproducing objects in accordance with their nature, and it is saturated with beauty, since it comes from God: there is nothing else left to do but to reveal and express this beauty. In the Islamic concept, art in a broad sense is a means of refining material. Muslim art (carpet weaving, architecture, painting, calligraphy) is characterized by the repetition of expressive geometric motifs, unexpected changes in rhythm and diagonal symmetry. The Islamic structure of the mind includes a keen sense of the fragility of the world, capacity for thought and action, and a sense of rhythm.

Another typical example of Arab-Muslim culture is the arabesque, a specific Muslim ornament in which logic is associated with the living integrity of rhythm. Elements of Muslim Decorative Art are borrowed from the historical past common to the peoples of Asia, the Middle East and Northern Europe. Islam assimilates these archaic elements, reducing them to the most abstract and pure definition, leveling them to a certain extent and thus depriving them of any magical character. As a result of this synthesis, the arabesque has analogies in Arabic rhetoric and poetry, distinguished by a rhythmic flow of thought, filled with strictly related parallels and inversions. For Muslims, the arabesque is not only the possibility of creating art without paintings, but also a means of dispersing the painting or what corresponds to it in thought. In an arabesque, reproduction of an individual form is impossible due to the infinity of the canvas.

Calligraphy, the most noble visual art of Islam, has a function similar to that of icons in Christian art, as it represents the visible body of the divine Word. Arabic words in sacred writings correlate with arabesques, primarily with floral patterns associated with the Asian symbol of the tree of the world, the leaves of which correspond to the words of the holy book.

In the Arab-Muslim world, calligraphy was widely used in architecture, both as a means of conveying text and simply for decoration. Architects sometimes covered entire walls of palaces and mosques with intricate Arabic script, stylized plant motifs, and geometric patterns. The architecture itself is also famous, the masterpieces of which are the Taj Mahal, the blue mosque in Istanbul, which is based on a Christian temple, the blue domes of Samarkand and Isfahan mosques, the Alhambra Palace in Granada, and the palaces and mosques of Cordoba. We should also remember the patterned tiles of Muslim architecture, the ornaments of which later brought fame to Persian carpets.

Many examples of Islamic art can be seen in the Western Hemisphere thanks to the conquistadors. In the Mexican city of Pueblo, the walls of ancient Catholic churches are covered with tiled mosaics with floral patterns. It turns out that mutually competing cultures and religions mutually enrich each other.

Originality is also inherent in the Muslim understanding of morality and law, for it is believed that following Islamic morality and Sharia law with faith in Allah makes it possible for the highest moral improvement of the individual.

Along with the principle of ethical absolutism, Islam affirms the principle of moral dogmatism, thereby demanding from adherents of the religion the unconditional fulfillment of Koranic moral norms as given by God and therefore not subject to reasonable justification, regardless of the social consequences of such behavior. This means that a person must behave in a strictly certain way, not because it is reasonable and expedient, but because it is so prescribed by Allah. The consistent introduction of the principles of Islamic morality into the consciousness of the individual, the requirement of strict adherence to them leads to the establishment among adherents of Islam of blind, uncritical adherence to the norms of this morality, militant intolerance towards dissent and dissidents. Such religious fanaticism in history has repeatedly turned into mass physical destruction of ideological opponents under the banner of “the fight against infidels,” since, as the famous French orientalist A. Masse emphasizes, “the spread of Islam with arms in hand was a religious duty,” and the war “was considered fair if it was undertaken with the aim of converting people to the true faith. This method of conversion to the true faith has more than once led to the shedding of innocent blood of “infidels”, and of true believers too.

In the belief of Muslims, the entire organization of the caliphate - its power and laws - comes from Allah, which expresses the specific opposition of Islamic thinking: the divine is opposed to the human or the “heavenly” is opposed to the “earthly”, but at the same time there was no opposition between the religious and the secular. Since the social life of people, including their morality, is subject to divine law, it is impossible to talk about the existence of secular laws that oppose religious laws, secular power that is in opposition to religious power. After all, there was a single Muslim power, the source of which was God, i.e. Before us is a picture of a very specific theocracy. Thus, the civilization of Islam is organized around very simple initial concepts - religious dogmas and laws deriving from the Koran and the Sunnah - the tradition left behind by the prophet. Muhammad. In general, we can say that Islam is a way of life.

The period when the Muslim world was under the rule of the Caliphate is called the Golden Age of Islam. This era lasted from the 8th to the 13th centuries AD. It began with the grand opening of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. There, scientists from different parts of the world sought to collect all the knowledge available at that time and translate it into Arabic. The culture of the countries of the Caliphate during this period experienced an unprecedented flourishing. The Golden Age ended with the Mongol invasion and the fall of Baghdad in 1258.

Reasons for cultural upsurge

In the 8th century, a new invention penetrated from China to the territories inhabited by Arabs - paper. It was much cheaper and easier to produce than parchment, more convenient and durable than papyrus. It also absorbed ink better, allowing for faster copying of manuscripts. Thanks to the advent of paper, books became much cheaper and more accessible.

The ruling dynasty of the Caliphate, the Abbasids, supported the accumulation and transmission of knowledge. She referred to the saying of the Prophet Muhammad, which read: “The ink of a scholar is more sacred than the blood of a martyr.”

A university was founded in the Moroccan city of Fez in 859. Later, similar establishments opened in Cairo and Baghdad. Theology, law and Islamic history were studied at universities. The culture of the countries of the Caliphate was open to external influence. Among the teachers and students there were not only Arabs, but also foreigners, including non-Muslims.

Medicine

In the 9th century, a system of medicine based on scientific analysis began to develop on the territory of the Caliphate. The thinkers of this time, Ar-Razi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), systematized their contemporary knowledge about the treatment of diseases and presented it in books, which subsequently became widely known in medieval Europe. Thanks to the Arabs, the Christian world rediscovered the ancient Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen.

The culture of the countries of the Caliphate included traditions of helping the poor based on the precepts of Islam. Therefore, in large cities there were free hospitals that provided care to all patients who applied. They were financed by religious foundations - waqfs. The world's first institutions for caring for the mentally ill also appeared on the territory of the Caliphate.

art

The cultural features of the Arab Caliphate were especially clearly manifested in decorative art. Islamic ornaments cannot be confused with examples of fine art from other civilizations. Carpets, clothing, furniture, dishes, facades and interiors of buildings were decorated with characteristic patterns.

The use of the ornament is associated with a religious ban on the depiction of animate beings. But it was not always strictly followed. In book illustrations, images of people were widespread. And in Persia, which was also part of the Caliphate, similar frescoes were painted on the walls of buildings.

Glass products

Egypt and Syria were centers of glass production back in ancient times. On the territory of the Caliphate, this type of craft was preserved and improved. During the era, the world's best glassware was produced in the Middle East and Persia. The highest Caliphate was appreciated by the Italians. Later, the Venetians, using the developments of Islamic masters, created their own glass industry.

Calligraphy

The entire culture of the Arab Caliphate is permeated by the desire for perfection and beauty of inscriptions. A brief religious instruction or a passage from the Koran was applied to a variety of objects: coins, ceramic tiles, metal grilles, house walls, etc. Masters who mastered the art of calligraphy had a higher status in the Arab world than other artists.

Literature and poetry

At the initial stage, the culture of the countries of the Caliphate was characterized by a concentration on religious subjects and the desire to supplant regional languages ​​with Arabic. But later there was a liberalization of many spheres of public life. This in particular led to the revival of Persian literature.

The poetry of that period is of greatest interest. Poems are found in almost every Persian book. Even if it is a work on philosophy, astronomy or mathematics. For example, almost half of the text of Avicenna’s book on medicine is written in poetry. Panegyrics became widespread. Epic poetry also developed. The pinnacle of this trend is the poem "Shahname".

The famous tales of the Arabian Nights are also of Persian origin. But for the first time they were collected in one book and written down in Arabic in the 13th century in Baghdad.

Architecture

The culture of the countries of the Caliphate was formed under the influence of both ancient pre-Islamic civilizations and the peoples neighboring the Arabs. This synthesis was most clearly manifested in architecture. Buildings in the Byzantine and Syriac styles are characteristic of early Muslim architecture. The architects and designers of many buildings built on the territory of the Caliphate came from Christian countries.

The Great Mosque of Damascus was built on the site of the basilica and almost exactly repeated its shape. But soon the Islamic architectural style itself appeared. The Great Mosque of Keyrouan in Tunisia became the model for all subsequent Muslim religious buildings. It is square in shape and consists of a minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticoes, and a huge prayer hall with two domes.

The culture of the countries of the Arab Caliphate had pronounced regional characteristics. Thus, Persian architecture was characterized by pointed and horseshoe arches, Ottoman architecture was characterized by buildings with many domes, and Maghreb architecture was characterized by the use of columns.

The caliphate had extensive trade and political ties with other countries. Therefore, his culture had a great influence on many peoples and civilizations.

Arab culture has gone through a difficult path of development. In it one can distinguish Arab culture itself And culture of the conquered Arabs and Islamized peoples, which was often at a higher level than the culture of the conquerors themselves. Arab culture in the narrow sense of the word usually includes the culture of Arabia and those countries that have undergone Arabization and in which the Arab nation has emerged (Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the Maghreb countries). This culture synthesized achievements not only Arabic, But ancient Babylonian, Persian, Central Asian cultures and heritage antiquity. The heyday of Arab culture occurred in the 8th-11th centuries. They achieved significant success in fiction, in particular in poetry, love lyrics, religious and court poetry. Between X-XV centuries. A popular collection of folk tales, One Thousand and One Nights, was formed. The Arabic alphabet was created in Syria in the 6th century. Arameans (Syrians), the alphabet consisted of 28 letters. Classical Arabic developed on the basis of the Koran and Old Arabic poetry. This language remained for a long time the language of government institutions, poetry and literature. Its role in the Middle Ages was exceptionally great and comparable to the role of the Latin language in medieval Europe and Greek in Byzantium. Muslim secondary and higher schools became the main centers of education for the Arabs. madrasah(from Arabic: daras to study), who trained clergy, teachers, and government officials.

The main center of culture was Baghdad. In the 9th century The House of Wisdom, a kind of academy of sciences, was created here. It housed a library of ancient manuscripts, an astronomical observatory, and a translation school. The works of Aristotle, Plato, Archimedes, Ptolemy and others were translated here. The House of Wisdom was headed by al-Khorezmi. Arabic science developed under the strong influence of antiquity, but at the same time it was directly related to the practical needs of economic development and public administration of a huge country. Widespread zaji astronomical works. Mathematics, geography and cartography developed based on the works of Ptolemy. Many astronomical and mathematical works of the Arabs had direct access to practical life. The entire Muslim world to this day uses what was created in the 7th century. lunar calendar, where the starting date is July 16, 622, the date of Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina. The achievements of the Arabs in the field of medicine are significant. Thus, many discoveries in the field of surgery belong to the chief physician of the hospital in Baghdad, Abu Beker Muhammad al-Razi. Among the architectural structures of that time, the most advanced were mosques and palace buildings. They were decorating arabesques with the finest ornaments, floral and geometric, with the inclusion of stylized inscriptions. Arab artists also reached heights in decorating books with patterns and drawings. The most important art of Muslims is calligraphy, i.e. the art of writing beautifully. The achievements of the Arabs in calligraphy are amazing. They invented many handwritings. The text of a manuscript from that time is often perceived today as an independent work of art. Such high respect for the image of a word has its roots in Islam. If Christians venerate the sacred image of the image of God, then Muslims venerate the image of the Word of God, the depicted Word.

Islamic civilization thus has a number of distinctive features. First of all, it contributed to the synthesis of Western and Eastern cultures. Its uniqueness lay in the fact that, unlike previous world empires (Roman, the empire of Alexander the Great), based on military conquest, there appeared an empire supported by a single religion. The dominant factor in society is the religion of Islam, which determines not only spiritual and religious, but political, social, and civil life. Its impact, however, on the development of civilization is contradictory. On the one hand, Islam acts as a powerful integrating, consolidating force. On the other hand, Islam, starting from the second half of the 9th century, has become increasingly intolerant towards Christians, Jews, Muslim heretics, as well as representatives of secular science and philosophy.

Section VI. Chapter 3. Western European medieval civilization

medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in the process of cultural interaction between the Arabs and the peoples of the Middle and Middle countries they conquered. East, North Africa and South-West Europe. In the scientific literature the term “A. To." is used both to denote the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and when applied to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the concept “A. To." is sometimes identified with the concept of “Muslim culture” (i.e., the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional.

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, Arabia was preceded by the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs - a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the stage of transition to an early form of class society. Its bearers were mainly polytheists. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemenite, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. A characteristic element of the pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) was a developed oral folk literature. The formation of A.K. proper dates back to the period of the emergence of Islam. (7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which as a result of the Arab conquests (See Arab conquests) turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by religious and, in most areas, linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life of the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of ancient culture was mainly a process of assimilation, revaluation, and creative development in new ideological and socio-political conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of conquered peoples (ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.) . The Arabs themselves gave A.K. such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, and the traditions of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to the Arab world was made by peoples who, having converted to Islam, retained national and then revived state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, and Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by the part of the population of the Caliphate that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Western Asia); Their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabians of Harran) are associated, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. Many scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic written language and contributed to the establishment of a continuous connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization.

From the end of the 7th century. until the middle of the 8th century. Along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads (See Umayyads), the main centers that determined the formation of AK were Mecca and Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra in Iraq. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. received distribution and further development in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, over a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the river. Ind.

With the formation of the Abbasid Caliphate (See Abbasids) (750) the center of Egypt in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to ​​Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the focus of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. A.K. reached its peak. Her achievements enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development of material culture and art (architecture, artistic crafts). The division of branches of knowledge in academia is conditional, because for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the absence of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of most academic figures were typical. The philosopher and mathematician was often also a major historian, physician, geographer, poet, and philologist.

An important factor in the flourishing of Arab culture was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). The enrichment of the Arab world was facilitated by ample opportunities for communication and the exchange of cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively ties with many countries of the East and Europe.

The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century) due to the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the sphere of distribution of ancient culture and a gradual decrease in its role in the overall development of world culture. In Muslim Spain, which separated from the Abbasid Caliphate back in the 8th century, the so-called independent development began. Arab-Spanish culture. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th century. centers of the Iranian cultural and national revival are being formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language, first from literature and poetry, and then from some humanities (history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its importance here as the language of the Koran, religious canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural science disciplines (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. AK centers move to Syria, Egypt, and Spain.

All in. In Africa, under the Fatimids (See Fatimids) (10th-12th centuries) and the Ayyubids (See Ayyubids) (12th-13th centuries), the development of the best traditions of AK in the field of science, literature, art and material culture continued, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th century. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo.

The meaning of A. k. 8-10 centuries. in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious, philosophical and artistic knowledge of the world and man. The main efforts of AK figures in subsequent periods were directed mainly at systematizing and detailing this heritage.

Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of A.K. were not interrupted, from the 2nd half of the 13th century. In the work of academic figures, the epigonic direction, compilative in science and imitative in literature, prevailed. Individual exceptions could not affect the general state of spiritual stagnation and the increasingly noticeable lag in the development of ancient culture from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, Middle Asia in the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century. ) and in Europe.

The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flourishing in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. The greatest successes were achieved in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arab philosophy continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], represented by the works of Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that were among the best artistic monuments of A.K. Monuments of Spanish-Moorish architecture and applied art became world famous (see Moorish art).

A major achievement of the AK of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) historical and philosophical theory of social development.

In the 16th century Arab countries became provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt fell into decline, although even during this period the old cultural centers of Syria, Iraq and Egypt traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scholars.

A qualitatively new period in the development of AK began in the first half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of the Arab countries in modern times, in the conditions of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of a modern academia is taking place, mainly within each of the Arab countries. (See relevant sections in articles about individual Arab countries.)

Exact and natural sciences. The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was initially the territory of Syria and part of the South-West. Iran. Here the beginning of translations into Arabic and commentary on the works of ancient authors was laid. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which introduced scholars of Islamic countries to a significant part of ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources for which the West. Europe could become acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron’s “Mechanics” and many of Archimedes’ treatises have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of the AK, many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use; some of them were adopted from China and India.

9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is becoming a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and commentaries on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape here, closely related to the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are intensively developing.

In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), new scientific centers emerged along with Baghdad: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. At various times, major scientific centers were Bukhara and Isfahan, where from the end of the 11th century. Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam worked at the observatory (about 1048 - after 1122), who wrote his scientific treatises in Arabic. In Cairo from the beginning of the 11th century. the “House of Knowledge” functioned, in which astronomer Ibn Yunus worked (950--1009) and the mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (about 965-1039); in 1004 an observatory was built here.

In addition to the Greek heritage, the formation of mathematics in Islamic countries was greatly influenced by the Indian scientific tradition. The decimal positional number system using zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the largest representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (9th century). In the 15th century Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions into use and described the rules for operating them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scientist al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasireddin Tuei (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Methods for extracting roots with natural indicators were developed and systematized. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline was extremely great. Khorezmi's algebraic treatise contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for solving them; treatise by Omar Khayyam - theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational techniques of Viruni, Kashi, and others were significantly improved.

Of great interest are the geometric treatise of the brothers “sons of Musa” (“Banu Musa”) of the 9th century, the works of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Kurra (See Ibn Kurra) (about 836-901), the treatise of Ibn al- Haytham on the quadratures of conic sections and the cubatures of bodies obtained from their rotation, studies by an-Nayrizi (9th-10th centuries), Ibn Kurra, Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuey and others on the theory of parallel lines.

Mathematicians from Islamic countries turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary branch of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasireddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were studied, the most important theorems of trigonometry were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which were distinguished by great accuracy.

Astronomy has achieved significant success. First, translation and commentary on the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical works - siddhantas - were carried out. The center of translation activity was the “House of Wisdom” and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari - father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Starting from Greek methods of modeling the movement of celestial bodies and Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for transitioning from one of the three coordinate systems used to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important natural science knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - have become widespread. About 100 zijs from the 13th to 15th centuries have reached us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors’ own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasireddin Tuei in Maragha, Kashi in Samarkand, etc. Arab astronomers achieved significant accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (9th century), the meridian degree was measured to determine the size of the globe.

Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Kurra's treatise on lever scales - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on the determination of the specific gravities of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general issues of mechanics originates from the translation and commentary of the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on Aristotle's natural science works were Biruni and Ibn Sina.

Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and physician al-Razi].

Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the “Canon of Masud”, “Mineralogy” by Biruni, and in the “Book of Knowledge” by Ibn Sina. Ibn al-Haytham's "Optics" was widely known in the West. Europe.

Great strides have been made in medicine. Ibn Sina’s “Canon of Medicine” has long been the main guide to medical practice both in the medieval East and in the West. Europe. Among Biruni's works there is a treatise on pharmacology. The well-known body of medical knowledge of al-Razi (864-925). Issues of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, and psychiatry were developed.

Chemistry (see Alchemy) and botany received some development.

Geography. In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arab geography, literature has no analogues in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, the North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence about many peoples of the Middle Ages. A characteristic feature of Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, despite the real information it had accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemaic maps or schematic maps that went back to ancient Iranian prototypes.

The geographical ideas of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, marked the beginning of Arab scientific geography, which applied calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arab geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical, geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century The first examples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh (about 820 - about 912/913), Qudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yaqubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories, containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zaid al-Sirafi, early 10th century; works by Buzurg ibn Shahryar and others). The genre of travel descriptions developed further (notes of Ibn Fadlan, 10th century, Abu Dulaf, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubayr, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta (See Ibn Battuta), 1304-1377, description of the journey to Russia of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.).

The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls in the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arab geography, devoted to the description of trade routes and regions of the Muslim world and containing rich geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000 ). B 11-14 centuries genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies, summarizing the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries of Yakut, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, cosmographies of al-Qazwini, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abu-l- Feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His works with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to a description of the Muslim East, it contains various information about the countries and peoples of the West. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly through the creation of extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographical descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Maqrizi). The geographical sections in the works of al-Nuwayri, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi and others are of great value. A major contribution to Arab geographical science was the work of the pilot Vasco da Gama - Ibn Majid (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century) , summarizing the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation.

Philosophy. The main content of the history of medieval Arab philosophy was the struggle between the Eastern Peripatetics (see Peripatetic school), who proceeded from the Hellenistic heritage, and supporters of religious idealistic teachings. The background to the emergence of philosophical thought proper in the Arab East dates back to the 2nd half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites (See Mu'tazilites), early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of questions about divine Attributes and free will, ended with the development of concepts that not only went beyond the scope of religious issues, but also undermined faith in some basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of ​​Monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the presence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; Denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of ​​​​the eternity of the Koran and on this basis concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. The Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the inability of the creator to change the natural order of things. The idea of ​​the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, and on the other, they cleared the ground for the emergence of purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics.

As a reaction to the ideas of the Mu'tazilites, the doctrine of the Ash'arites (followers of al-Ash'ari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term “kalam” is often associated and the main thus its representatives are called mutakallim). According to the teachings of the Ash'arites, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no cause-and-effect relationships, for the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any shape and any movement.

In contrast to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using, together with elements of the Muslim worldview, the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, Sufis developed a doctrine of the paths leading a person through renunciation of worldly passions and thought of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and the final merger with him. At the same time, at some stages of their development, Sufi ideas were interpreted in the spirit of naturalistic Pantheism.

The mysticism of the Sufis, which at first was persecuted by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111), the largest representative of religious-idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the “heretical” and “anti-religious” views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended the position of the Ash’arites along with mystical Sufism, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240) can also be considered one of the influential representatives of Sufism.

Eastern Peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which was passed on to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened up the possibility of atheistic and even materialistic concepts. Thus, the position of dual truth, already contained in a hidden form in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, suggested allegorical interpretations of the dogmas of Islam.

The founder of Eastern Peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arab philosophy to set out the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (based on the classification of intellects going back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the introduction of the individual’s mind to the universal, the deity, the mind. Kindi's deism, his idea of ​​God as a faceless "distant cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's Neoplatonic theory of emanation. Farabi's ontological and epistemological ideas were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who affirmed the eternity of matter and the independence of private phenomena of life from divine providence.

In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moved to the west of the Muslim world - to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baj, reflecting on man’s ability through purely intellectual improvement, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with the active mind, and Ibn Tufail, in a philosophical Robinsonade describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out at the same time in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian, and with it the entire medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Ash'arites and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teaching of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with a thesis about the immanence of forms in matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering eternal only the human intellect, which joins the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. Ibn Rushd’s development of the concept of dual truth played a major role in the history of medieval philosophy.

Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history.

Arabic philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd, see Averroism) and other fighters against the official ideology of Catholicism.

Historical science. Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline emerged at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. The first historical records date back to the end of the 7th century. The material for the early monuments of historical literature in Arabic was the historical and genealogical legends of Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in the South. Arabia and about the Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lakhmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme of world history accepted in Arab historiography was formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of ​​the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected the family tree of the Arabs with the biblical “table of nations.” A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic traditions (translations of the “Book of Kings” of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arab historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the implementation of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of man for his actions and sees the task of the historian in teaching through historical experience. The idea of ​​the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawaih (died 1030). Arab historians did not go beyond narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to move on to the presentation of historical events in their causal relationship, developing an original doctrine of the general laws of development of human society.

The predecessors of professional Arab historians were experts and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), expanded and recorded by his son Hisham (died c. 819). In addition to Hisham al-Kalbi's monumental collection of Arab genealogies, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaim ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubayri (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Qalqashandi (1355-1418), etc. The largest figure in the initial period of Arab historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called magazi). The first major historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the biography of Muhammad) by Ibn Ishaq (about 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent works on this topic. The most significant works are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sad (died 845), the later compilations of Ibn Said an-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi and others. Adjacent to them are hagiographic literature popular in the Middle Ages, mostly fantastic stories about the prophets and Muslim saints.

For the 2nd half of the 8th - mid 9th centuries. characterized by the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events, mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate of the 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaidah (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the 9th century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th century. works appear that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Belazuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri (See Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri) (died about 895) and al-Yaqubi on general history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and the political history of the Caliphate (the rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume “History of Prophets and Kings” by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923). The general history of al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (See Hamza al-Isfahani) (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawaih, and later Ibn al-Athir (1160) also became famous. - 1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians of the 9th-10th centuries. distinguished by their breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yaqubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside Muslim countries).

In connection with the formation of local political identity in the states that emerged on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate, in historiography from the 2nd half of the 10th century. dynastic and local chronicles predominate, the authors of which were mainly court historiographers (usually official secretaries, viziers, etc.), rather than scholarly historians. Biographical chronicles were developed devoted to the history of secretaries, viziers (for example, al-Azhakhshiyari, died 943; Hilal al-Sabi. 969-1056), judges (Waqi al-Qadi, died 918; al-Kindi, died 961; al-Khusani , died 971). Local historiography is represented by works on the history of individual cities, regions and provinces, for example the history of Mecca - al-Azraqi (died about 858), Baghdad - Ibn Abu Tahir Taifur (819/20 - 893), Egypt - Ibn Abd al-Hakam (about 798 -871), Muslim Spain - Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (about 796-853). The historical encyclopedia of the Yemeni historian al-Hamdani (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), which contains information on genealogy, history, archeology, geography and literature of the South, deserves special attention. Arabia. At a later time, in works of this kind, the main attention was given to the biographies of local political, religious and cultural figures, and many of these biographical works are characterized by a combination of annals with political biography. This is the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adim (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). Dynastic history, begun by the works of Ibrahim al-Sabi (died 994) on the history of the Buyids (See Buyids) and al-Utbi (961-1022, according to other sources, died 1036 or 1040) on the history of the Ghaznavids (See Ghaznavids), received special development in the 12th-13th centuries, mainly in Syria, where the center of historical science moved. The local Zengid and Ayyubid dynasties found their historiographers in the persons of Imad-ud-din al-Isfahani (1125-1201), Ibn Shaddad (1145-1234), Abu Shama (1203-1268) and especially Ibn Wasil (1207-1298). General histories were also created here (Abu-l-Fida, 1273-1331; al-Zahabi, 1274-1353 or 1347; Ibn Kathir, around 1300-1373, etc.). In the 15th-16th centuries. The leading place in Arab historiography was occupied by Egyptian historians, authors of works on the history of the Mamluks (See Mamluks), historical encyclopedias (al-Nuwayri, 1279-1332) and general chronicles (Ibn al-Furat, 1334-1405) and especially a galaxy of polyhistorian historians , such as al-Makrizi (1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), Abul-Mahasin Ibn Tagriberdi (1409 or 1410-1470) and al-Suyuti (1445-1505), who left multi-volume works on political, socio-economic and cultural history of Egypt.

One of the main places in Arab historiography is occupied by biographical literature itself: general biographical dictionaries of Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), sets of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences of Ibn al- Qifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270), etc. Historical works in Arabic were written not only in Arab, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish rule (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigonian compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographical collections. The most valuable are the history of Andalusia al-Makkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659).

Literature. Arabic literature has its roots in the oral literature of the tribal society on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Early records (8th-10th centuries) include: co. "Selected" or "

• - riding horses, bred selection in the 1st millennium AD e. on the Arabian Peninsula. The color is gray, bay and red...

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• - see also HORSES Horse riding, is the product of crossing ancient Parthian horses with North African, and possibly ancient Spanish horses and the tireless work of many generations of people...

  Breeds of farm animals. Directory

• - see also 5. HORSES The purebred Arabian breed, along with the thoroughbred horse breed, is used to improve the type and quality of movement of many breeds...

  Genetic resources of farm animals in Russia and neighboring countries

• - YAR, state in the South-West. Asia, in the south-west. Arabian Peninsula. Pl. 195 t. km2. Us. 6.1 million, 1.5 million Yemenis live in other countries. The capital is Sana'a. I. is an agricultural country...

  Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary

• - ...

  Literary encyclopedia

• - - name united state, which included in February. 1958 - Sept. 1961 Egypt and Syria. From Sep. 1961 to Sept. 1971 official name Egypt...

  Large philatelic dictionary

• - state in the north-east. Africa and partly in Asia. Area OK. 1 million km2. Population 30 million hours, ch. arr. Arabs. OK. 99% of us. lives in the Nile Delta and Valley, in the Faiyum oasis and in the Suez Canal zone. State language - Arabic...

  Soviet historical encyclopedia

• - see Aristotelian philosophy...

  Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron

• - Arabic is one of the main branches of the Semitic indigenous language, widespread throughout Western Asia and North Africa. It is distinguished by its special richness both in the development of grammatical forms and... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

"Arab culture" in books

1. Arabic ballad

From the book Life on the Old Roman Road [Tales and Stories] by Totovents Vaan

1. Arabic ballad Translation by R. Grigoryan1 At that time I worked in the oriental carpet department of the Uinten trading house. One day, when all the sellers were busy, I was asked to receive one of the buyers. He chose several expensive carpets and, handing me his business card

Arab street

From the book African Diary author Bely Andrey

Arab street Anyone who wandered through the slums of Cairo will not forget it; she is supernatural: there is ugliness in her - oppressive, frightening, terrifying; and, finally, it delights: with a murderous range of terry deformities; all the crappy miasma burns the larynx, tickles the nose; among the roaring crowds and grins

ARAB TALE

From the book of Revelation author Klimov Grigory Petrovich

ARABIC TALE A man is riding in the Moscow metro and swears: “Oh, fuck you!” They tell him: “Citizen, don’t swear, because there are women and children here!” The man was silent for a while, and then again: “Oh, fuck off!” Then they call a policeman. The man beckoned to the policeman

Arabic cuisine

From the book First Courses author Kuropatkina Marina Vladimirovna

Arab spring

From the book Anti-Semitism as a Law of Nature author Brushtein Mikhail

Arab Spring I am amazed by the spiritual resilience of the Jewish people, their courageous idealism, irreversible faith in the victory of good over evil, in the possibility of happiness on earth. The old strong yeast of humanity, the Jews, have always elevated its spirit, bringing restless, restless spirits into the world.

ARAB TALE

From the book of Revelation author Klimov Grigory Petrovich

ARABIC TALE A man is riding in the Moscow metro and swears: “Oh, fuck you!” They tell him: “Citizen, don’t swear, because there are women and children here!” The man was silent for a while, and then again: “Oh, fuck off!” Then they call a policeman. The man beckoned to the policeman

Arab culture of the late Middle Ages

From the book A Critical Study of the Chronology of the Ancient World. East and the Middle Ages. Volume 3 author Postnikov Mikhail Mikhailovich

Arab culture of the late Middle Ages Let us emphasize that in the entire previous analysis, by “Arab culture” we understood the culture of the apocryphal period until the 10th-11th centuries. As for later times, on the contrary, we believe that the Arab (or, better said,

ARABIC ASTROLOGY

From the book Astrology for Girls author Razumovskaya Ksenia

ARAB ASTROLOGY In the Arab Caliphate - a feudal-theocratic state - about 500-600 years before the start of the Renaissance, astrology developed rapidly. Its source becomes Babylon, whose knowledge passes into the caliphate through ancient culture. The Arabs took it to

Arab Empire

From the book In the Shadow of the Sword. The emergence of Islam and the struggle for the Arab Empire by Holland Tom

Arab Empire Muhammad - prophet of Islam. Abu Bekr (632-634) - according to Muslim tradition, the first of the Rashidun - “righteous caliphs”. Omar I (634-644) - military leader and ascetic. Osman (644-656) - successor of Omar as leader of the Arab Empire and a man according to Muslim

ARAB PHILOSOPHY

From the book Man: Thinkers of the past and present about his life, death and immortality. The ancient world - the era of Enlightenment. author Gurevich Pavel Semenovich

ARAB PHILOSOPHY In the medieval Arab world, the problem of man was posed and discussed by almost all ideological directions. In order to present in sufficient detail the originality of views about man inherent in the Arab Middle Ages, it is necessary to keep in mind

ARAB PHILOSOPHY

From the book History of Philosophy in Brief author Team of authors

ARAB PHILOSOPHY Arab philosophy developed parallel to the development of early scholasticism. However, its development happened differently. At first, the Arabs adopted from the Greeks mainly the ideas of Plato and the Neoplatonists, but gradually they began to pay more and more attention to the ideas

II THE ARAB DANGER

From the book History of the Byzantine Empire by Dil Charles

II ARAB DANGER Beginning of the 7th century. was marked by a great event - the birth of Islam. In twenty years, as a result of extraordinary expansion, the new religion conquered a huge part of the eastern world and, at the expense of Persia and Byzantium, spread from the shores of the Oxus to the coast.

ARAB CULTURE

From the book Invasion. Harsh laws author Maksimov Albert Vasilievich

ARAB CULTURE “Isn’t it an incredible fact, for example, that a few Arab bands emerging from the deserts were able to defeat the largest part of the old Greco-Roman world and found an empire even greater than that of Alexander?” Gustav Lebon.

Arab culture

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (AR) by the author TSB

From the book The Big Book of Wisdom author Dushenko Konstantin Vasilievich

Culture See also “Art and the Artist”, “Mass Culture”, “Politics and Culture” Culture is approximately everything that we do that monkeys do not do. Lord Raglan* Culture is what remains when everything else is forgotten. Edouard Herriot* There is culture